Meet Raheem DeVaughn, an 'R&B, Hippie, Neo-Soul, Rock Star'

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HOST:

Welcome to AMERICAN MOSAIC in VOA Special English.

(MUSIC)

I'm Doug Johnson.

Today, we play music by Raheem DeVaughn …

Answer a question about how to become a doctor in the United States …

And tell about the "World's Longest Yardsale."

(MUSIC)

Long Yard Sale

HOST:

If you cannot find what you want at the yard sale we are about to tell you about, then maybe what you want just does not exist. Because this yard sale runs all the way from the Midwestern state of Ohio to the Southern state of Alabama. That is more than one thousand kilometers of goods for sale along US Route One Twenty-Seven. Faith Lapidus has our story.

FAITH LAPIDUS:

It seems like almost everyone buys or sells goods at yard sales in the United States. People place used personal or household goods for sale outside their homes.

Last year's sale

The US One Twenty-Seven Corridor Sale is known as the World's Longest Yardsale. It began in nineteen eighty-seven. The event's headquarters is in Jamestown, Tennessee. A former local official, Mike Walker, came up with the idea. He thought it would bring people to the area and show them that small country roads have a lot to offer. Others agreed. They wanted people to consider traveling on these roads instead of the popular interstate system.

Every year, the four-day sale begins on the first Thursday in August. So August seventh marks the opening of the twenty-first World's Longest Yardsale. The event now crosses five states --- Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama.

Tens of thousands of sellers take part. Some people who live along or near Route One Twenty-Seven simply place their goods for sale in front of their house. Others use nearby public spaces, like parks. People sell everything and anything at the sale: furniture, clothing, toys, books and music. You can also find sporting goods, farm equipment, tools and art. And, lots of other things. Tens of thousands of people from across the country drive along the road in search of interesting things to buy. Route One Twenty-Seven becomes crowded with vehicles.

Leeann Hustonis the director of tourism and membership at the Fentress County Chamber of Commerce in Jamestown, Tennessee. She says last year she came close to buying one of strangest looking pieces of furniture she has ever seen --- a big, old, round bed. She said it had a complex design on the shiny, smooth, light blue and white material that covered it. Miz Huston says the bed was made in the nineteen thirties or forties. She said it looked like something that should be at Elvis Presley's home, Graceland, in Memphis, Tennessee. She says she thinks it sold for more than one thousand dollars.

Medical Education

HOST:

Our listener question this week comes from Ethiopia. Solomon Mengist Gardie wants to know how a person becomes a medical doctor in the United States.

Medical students Paul Haun and Elizabeth Schulz attend class at the Medical College of Georgia in February

It is not easy to become a doctor in the United States. Students must attend a college or university and do well in their studies. Students who want to become doctors usually study large amounts of biology and chemistry in college. Some students work for a year or two in a medical or research job before they attempt to enter medical school.

More than one hundred twenty American schools offer study programs for people seeking to become a doctor. Competition to enter these medical schools is strong. About thirty-five thousand people compete for sixteen thousand openings in American medical schools each year.

Students must take the Medical College Admission Test, or MCAT. The Association of American Medical Colleges provides the test by computer. Applicants for medical school need to do well on the MCAT.

Once in medical school, students spend their first two years mainly in classroom study. They learn about the body and all its systems. They also begin studying how to recognize and treat disease.

By the third year, students begin working with patients in hospitals. Experienced doctors who have treated many patients guide them as they work.

During the fourth year, students begin applying to programs in hospitals for the additional training they will need after medical school. Competition to work at a top hospital can be fierce.

Doctors-in-training in hospitals are called interns or residents. They treat patients while guided by experienced doctors, medical professors and other experts.

Some doctors work a long time in hospitals before they are fully trained in a specialty. Neurosurgeons are a good example. They operate on the brain, neck and back. Some neurosurgeons spend six years or more as residents in hospitals before beginning private practice and treating patients on their own.

The American Association of Medical Colleges reports that last year there were over seven hundred thousand active doctors practicing in the United States.

Raheem DeVaughn

HOST:

Raheem DeVaughn sings and writes songs that include several musical influences. He describes himself as an "R-and-B, hippie, neo-soul, rock star." Barbara Klein tells more about the singer and plays some of his music.

BARBARA KLEIN:

Raheem DeVaughn

Raheem DeVaughn has loved music since a very early age. But he did not begin his musical career until he was in college. He attended Coppin State University in Baltimore, Maryland. Raheem joined a singing group and began writing and recording songs. He soon left the university and the singing group to begin singing on his own in nightclubs in Washington, D.C.

DeVaughn's first album, "The Love Experience," was released in two thousand five. The songs are influenced by soul music made popular in the nineteen seventies. Here is the hit song "Guess Who Loves You More" from that album.

(MUSIC)

Raheem DeVaughn's latest album is called "Love Behind the Melody." Music critics praise his singing and song writing. They say his smooth voice and the important messages in his songs are a welcome addition to the music industry. His hit song "Woman" honors women for the many important parts they play in life.

(MUSIC)

We leave you with another song from Raheem DeVaughn's new album "Love Behind the Melody." This is "Butterflies."

(MUSIC)

HOST:

I'm Doug Johnson. I hope you enjoyed our program today.

It was written by Lawan Davis, Elizabeth Stern and Caty Weaver, who was also the producer. To read the text of this program and download audio, go to our Web site, voaspecialenglish.com.

Send your questions about American life to mosaic@voanews.com. And please include your full name and where you are from. Or write to American Mosaic, VOA Special English, Washington, D.C., two-zero-two-three-seven, U.S.A.

Join us again next week for AMERICAN MOSAIC, VOA's radio magazine in Special English.

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The US Housing Rescue Plan: What It Includes

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This is the VOA Special English Economics Report

Last week, the United States Congress approved a major housing bill. President George Bush signed it into law on Wednesday.

The plan could help an estimated four hundred thousand homeowners late in their payments and in danger of losing their homes.

The government will guarantee up to three hundred billion dollars in lower-cost refinancing of loans. In return, lenders must agree to forgive part of the original loan.

Prices for homes, like this one in Denver, Colorado, are falling in many parts of the country

But experts say as many as three million owners are in trouble. With falling prices, many people owe more than their homes are worth.

The new law also includes help for the mortgage finance companies Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. They guarantee or own almost half of the nation's twelve trillion dollars in housing debt.

They buy high quality loans but have also invested in risky mortgages. In recent months they have reported eleven billion dollars in losses, and their stock prices have collapsed.

Congress created the Federal National Mortgage Association, or Fannie Mae, in nineteen thirty-eight. In sixty-eight it became a shareholder-owned company financed with private capital. Then Congress created a competitor: the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Association, or Freddie Mac.

Fannie Mae and the smaller Freddie Mac buy loans from banks and other lenders, then sell them as securities to investors worldwide. This secondary market provides money for lenders to make new loans.

Now, few investors are interested in mortgage-backed securities without government guarantees.

Investors always believed that if Fannie and Freddie needed help, the government would intervene. Now, it has. The new law lets the Treasury, until the end of next year, offer them unlimited credit and even buy their stock.

Some critics say Fannie and Freddie should be replaced by truly private companies. Their government connection has lowered their borrowing costs. But many economists say homeowners get little of that savings. And critics have deplored their spending on political campaigns, lobbying activities, and pay for their executives.

The plan does create new supervision over both companies.

The Congressional Budget Office says the rescue plan could cost taxpayers twenty-five billion dollars. But it also says there is probably better than a fifty percent chance that no money will be needed.

And that's the VOA Special English Economics Report, written by Mario Ritter. I'm Steve Ember.

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American History Series: Relations With Britain Hit a Low Point in 1811

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Welcome to THE MAKING OF A NATION – American history in VOA Special English.

James Madison

James Madison of Virginia was elected president of the United States in eighteen hundred and eight. He followed Thomas Jefferson and served two terms.

Madison's first four years were not easy. He had to deal with a foreign policy problem that Jefferson was not able to solve: increasingly tense relations with Britain. His second four years were worse. There was war. Larry West and Leo Scully have our story.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

James Madison was inaugurated in Washington on March fourth, eighteen-oh-nine. The people of the city were happy with the new president. But the nation was not yet sure what kind of leader he would be.

The French minister to the United States did not think much of him. He said: "Mister Madison is an intelligent man, but weak. He will always see what should be done, but will not do it."

VOICE ONE:

Like the first three American presidents, Madison had a small cabinet. There would be a secretary of state and a secretary of the treasury.

Madison decided to keep Albert Gallatin in the position of treasury secretary. Gallatin probably knew more about the nation's finances than anyone else. The choice for secretary of state was political. Madison named Robert Smith, the brother of a senator. The new president was not too concerned about Mister Smith's abilities, because he planned to make foreign policy himself.

VOICE TWO:

Jefferson's biggest foreign policy problem arose from a war between Britain and France. The two nations refused to honor America's neutrality. Each tried to prevent the United States from trading with the other. Both interfered with American shipping. And the British navy sometimes seized American sailors.

President Jefferson ordered a ban on trade with Europe. But it failed to end the hostile acts against the United States.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Britain and France were still at war when Madison was elected president. In place of the trade ban, Congress had approved a new law. It was called the Non-Intercourse Act. The law prevented trade with Britain and France. But it gave President Madison the power to re-open trade if either nation stopped interfering with American ships.

Madison hoped the law would force Britain and France to honor American neutrality. He did not want war. But neither did he want to surrender America's rights as an independent nation.

VOICE TWO:

A month after Madison took office, the British minister in Washington, David Erskine, received new orders from his government. He said he had been given the power to settle all differences between the United States and Britain.

Erskine said Britain would stop seizing American ships if the United States would end the Non-Intercourse Law. He did not make clear that the British government demanded several conditions before an agreement could be reached.

One condition was that the United States continue the law against trade with France. Another was that Britain be permitted to capture American ships that violated the law. Erskine called the conditions, "proposals." He did not force the United States to accept them.

VOICE ONE:

On April nineteenth, President Madison announced that an agreement had been reached. He said the United States would re-open trade with Britain. The American people welcomed the agreement. It appeared that -- after less than two months as president -- Madison had been able to remove the threat of war.

The United States began trading again with Britain on June tenth, as agreed. Hundreds of ships left American ports. Relations with Britain seemed to have returned to normal.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

President Madison decided to spend the summer of eighteen-oh-nine at his home in the hills of Virginia. Soon after he arrived, he received surprising news. The British government had rejected the agreement he had reached with Erskine.

A British newspaper said the agreement was not what Britain wanted. It said Erskine had violated his orders and was being called back to London. A new minister, Francis James Jackson, would take his place.

VOICE ONE:

Madison returned to Washington in the autumn, about a month after the new British minister arrived. He learned that Secretary of State Smith had made no progress in talks with him. So the president decided to deal with him directly. He wanted to know exactly why Britain had rejected the agreement. Madison ordered that all communications between the two sides be written. There would be no more talks.

Letters were exchanged. But the British minister failed to explain satisfactorily what had happened. And his letters seemed to charge that the United States had not negotiated honestly. Madison finally broke off all communications, and the British minister left Washington.

VOICE TWO:

America's policy of trade with Britain and France continued to be a serious issue. In the early days of eighteen ten, Congress began to consider a new law to control such trade. After several weeks of debate, the two houses of Congress approved a compromise bill.

The bill ended the Non-Intercourse Act against Britain and France. It permitted trade with any nation. But it gave the president the power to declare non-intercourse again with either Britain or France separately. President Madison signed the bill into law.

VOICE ONE:

Relations between the United States and Britain did not improve during the year. And President Madison once again declared non-intercourse against Britain. Trade between the two countries was stopped at the beginning of March, eighteen-eleven.

Trade was not the only problem, however. A growing number of Americans believed that the British were helping some Native American Indians to fight the United States.

VOICE TWO:

Tecumseh was a leader in the Shawnee Indian tribe

As the people of the United States began to move to the northern and western territories, the government made treaties with the different Indian tribes. The treaties explained which land belonged to the Indians...and which land could be settled by the white men. The settlers did not always honor the treaties.

A leader of the Shawnee Indian tribe, Tecumseh, decided to take action. He started a campaign to unite all Indians and to help them defend against the white men.

Throughout the west, many Americans believed that the British in Canada were responsible for Tecumseh's efforts to unite the Indians. They demanded war with Britain to destroy the power of the tribes.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Detail of ''Death of Tecumseh'' located in the U.S. Capitol. Tecumseh is shown at lower right being shot during the War of 1812.

In Washington, a new Congress was meeting. Some of the new members were very different from the men who had controlled Congress before. They were less willing to compromise -- and more willing to go to war to defend America's interests. They soon got the name "War Hawks."

The new Congress quickly approved several measures to prepare the United States for war. One bill increased the size of the army by twenty-five thousand regular soldiers and fifty thousand volunteers.

VOICE TWO:

At the same time, America had a new secretary of state. President Madison had not been pleased with the work of Robert Smith. Nor did he trust Smith. The president could not be sure of Smith's support for administration proposals.

Madison wanted his close friend, James Monroe, to be secretary of state. Monroe was then governor of Virginia. He agreed to take the new job.

VOICE ONE:

What the United States did not have at that troubled time was a representative in Britain. When Madison broke off communications with British minister Jackson in Washington, Jackson returned to London. And the American minister in London, William Pinkney, sailed home.

There was no official in either capital to report what was happening. And the two countries were moving closer to war. That will be our story next week.

(MUSIC)

ANNOUNCER:

Our program was written by Frank Beardsley. The narrators were Larry West and Leo Scully. Join us again next week for THE MAKING OF A NATION – an American history series in VOA Special English.

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Talking in Rhythm: How to Manage the Stresses of American English

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AA: I'm Avi Arditti and this week on WORDMASTER: our guest is linguist Herb Stahlke to talk about rhythm in English speech.

HERB STAHLKE: "Learners of English really have to master the rhythms of English early, and the teaching has to be aimed at rhythm, because the structure of an English sentence is determined so much by the rhythm of speech. And English speech rhythms are really characteristically English -- very different from other languages. And if you can spend time getting those rhythms down, then the words will fit in better."

AA: "What are some really common rhythms in English?"

HERB STAHLKE: "In English we have strongly stressed syllables that we have at roughly equal intervals when we're speaking. And then we have weakly stressed syllables that get kind of scrunched up in between the strong stresses. And we can have a sentence like 'John left' -- two stresses, two words. 'JOHN'S gonna LEAVE,' and the reason we say 'gonna' instead of 'is going to' is because we've got to fit it between those two stresses.

"And it's those unstressed syllables that we have to scrunch down and fit into the space between the stresses that lead to what some people call sloppy speaking but which is in fact really good English speaking, because that's what gives English its rhythm. And if you don't speak English with that rhythm, English speakers will have a hard time understanding it."

AA: "So you've got to master some of those reductions [gonna, for example]."

HERB STAHLKE: "That's right."

AA: "What's another common rhythm?"

HERB STAHLKE: "Well, on top of those rhythms we've got something called accent, where what you're doing is identifying the most important thing in a sentence. So usually it comes toward the end. I could say 'I'm going to the STORE after supper.' 'I'm going to the STORE after supper.' Store is what's important there -- 'I'm going to the STORE after supper.'

"But that accent can go in various different places, and it's kind of independent of the rhythm. And that idea that you can make one word or one syllable stand out is really important to how we put meaning together. And a lot of other languages don't work that way."

AA: "So, right, if you emphasized 'I'm GOING to the store after dinner' that has a different -- I guess that would have a different meaning. Or if you say 'I'm going to the store after DINNER -- "

HERB STAHLKE: "Yeah."

AA: "Then you're emphasizing that, and that has its own meaning. You're sort of emphasizing when you're going."

HERB STAHLKE: "That's right."

AA: "And is there another sort of rhythm that comes up that may take some work learning for English learners?"

HERB STAHLKE: "Well, there's a lot of work involved in mastering this layering of the regular rhythm, roughly equally spaced stresses, and layering accent on top of that to show what's important.

"That's the kind of things that if you get students practicing that early on, their speech is going to be a lot more comprehensible. And ultimately they're going to understand more easily, too, because they'll understand why all these reductions occur."

AA: "What sorts of tips do you have for teachers who are trying to teach this to non-native English speakers -- how to gain some skill with first recognizing the rhythms, and then mastering them?"

HERB STAHLKE: "There are some good sources out there that have been in use for a while. Oh, it came out in the seventies, was something called 'Jazz Chants' -- "

AA: "By Carolyn Graham."

HERB STAHLKE: "Yeah, right, where you've got rhythmic speech, hand clapping involved with it, or any other kind of rhythm reinforcement that you can get, and the idea is to do a lot of that early. We learn -- speakers of any language learn the melodies and rhythms of their mother tongue before they're born, when you hear melody and rhythm in the womb. And so you know that when you're born, which means that it's really deeply planted in us. And when you start learning another language, what you automatically do is you import your own rhythm and melody into that new language, and it's not going to work."

AA: Linguist Herb Stahlke is professor emeritus in the English department at Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana. And that's WORDMASTER for this week. Archives are at voanews.com/wordmaster. And our e-mail address is word@voanews.com. I'm Avi Arditti.

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To Master Rhythms of English, You Really Hafta Learn Reductions

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AA: I'm Avi Arditti with Rosanne Skirble, and this week on WORD
MASTER: expanding on reductions. When speakers compress a phrase like "going to" into "gonna," or "what do you" into "whaddaya," that's a reduction. We mentioned their importance when we talked last week about the natural rhythms of spoken American English. To explain more, we found a segment we did with Slangman David Burke where he talked about reductions.

DAVID BURKE: "One of them is 'you.' Instead of saying you, we just say ya. Instead of saying `How are you?' [we say] `How are ya?' If I were to say to you 'Didja eat yet?' and you replied `No, didju?' we would understand that. 'Didja eat yet?' Did you eat yet?

"We talked about ya which is a reduction of you, but after the letter d the you or the ya becomes a 'ja' sound always after the letter d. `Would you like to come to the movies?' `Wouldja like to come to the movies?' `Did you eat?' `Didja eat?' And, for some reason after the letter t the ya becomes 'cha' -- `I'll let you come with me.' `I'll letcha come with me.' `What's that you have in your hand?' `Whatcha have in your hand?' So, we have about four different ways of saying `you' which is 'ya,' 'ja,' 'cha' and even 'ju.'"

AA: "This is spoken English, right? Now if you were writing a report or something for work, you would want to be more careful about using the formal non-reduced forms."

DAVID BURKE: "Absolutely. But, I would have to say yes and no, because reductions are used typically in speaking; however, a lot of times when we are writing to friends or especially in comic books we'll see the reduced form.

"True, in a formal report, you do not want to use reductions, but when we are writing a letter to somebody we might say in the beginning of the letter `How are ya?' and spell y-a for ya. That's pretty common."

AA: "Also on the most-often-heard reduction list are the reduced forms of going to and want to. They become gonna, g-o-n-n-a, and wanna, w-a-n-n-a."

RS: "As in 'I'm gonna be late,' or 'Do you wanna go with me?'"

DAVID BURKE: "And what's a little bit difficult to understand about `gonna' [is that] `gonna' is the reduction of `going to' only when it is something that is happening in the future.

"But when it indicates going from one place to another you cannot reduce it. For example, `I'm going to the movies tonight.' You can't say `I'm gonna the movies tonight.' Or `Are you going to the market?' You can't say 'Are you gonna the market?' So, it's only used to indicate the future, and it's really popular."

AA: "Sometimes, when reduction takes place, two different words are reduced to the same sound."

RS: "That happens with 'and' and 'in'."

DAVID BURKE: "'And' is pronounced 'n': `Rosanne n Avi.' The word `in' -- 'Let's go inside' -- it's pronounced absolutely the same. `Put the pencil 'n' the box.' It sounds like `Put the pencil and the box.'"

AA: "So someone coming to this country who is not used to the fast-speaking ways of your average American is going to be confused by these `wannas, gonnas -- "

RS: "Can't ya, don'tcha."

DAVID BURKE: "Absolutely. In fact just now you said a very common reduction, `used to' - `usta' means to be accustomed to, to be acclimated to. I'm usta getting up early. He usta be my best friend. We would never say `used to.'"

RS: "The question I have for you is that given the fact that Americans speak with reductions, how do people who speak English as a foreign language learn to tell the difference? How do they learn these reductions?"

DAVID BURKE: "The only way they can learn is to live in this country, and of course when they arrive they will be absolutely shocked and all of a sudden someone comes up and says, `How do ya do?' not `How do you do?' They are stunned."

AA: Slangman David Burke, talking about reductions in a segment from two thousand. You can learn about his language teaching materials at slangman.com. And that's WORDMASTER for this week. Archives are at voanews.com/wordmaster. And our e-mail is word@voanews.com. With Rosanne Skirble, I'm Avi Arditti.

MUSIC: "Whatcha Gonna Do With A Cowboy?" / Chris LeDoux/Garth Brooks

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America's Space Agency Turns 50

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VOICE ONE:

I'm Barbara Klein.

VOICE TWO:

Earth and the moon as photographed by the Apollo 11 astronauts

And I'm Steve Ember with EXPLORATIONS in VOA Special English. This month, the United States space agency celebrates its fiftieth anniversary. Today we tell about some of the high and lows of those fifty years.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

NASA was established on July twenty-ninth, nineteen fifty-eight when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act. The agency was created mainly because of competition between the United States and the former Soviet Union.

The Soviet Union had become the first country to put an object into orbit around the Earth. The successful launch of the Sputnik satellite on October fourth, nineteen fifty-seven marked the start of "the space race."

VOICE TWO:

NASA began operations on October first, nineteen fifty-eight from headquarters in Washington, D.C. Its first major goal was to show that people could survive and work in space. This was called Project Mercury. NASA chose seven military pilots to be the nation's first astronauts.

But in April, nineteen sixty-one, the Soviets put Yuri Gagarin into orbit around the Earth. NASA had been beaten to its first goal. Soon, however, President John F. Kennedy gave NASA a greater goal, bigger than anyone had considered at that time. He made this statement on May twenty-fifth, nineteen sixty-one.

President Kennedy speaking before Congress on May 25, 1961

PRESIDENT JOHN KENNEDY: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind or more important to the long-range exploration of space. And none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish."

VOICE ONE:

Project Mercury was a success scientifically and in the opinion of the American public. All of the first six space flights were in small one-man capsules. Tom Wolfe wrote a book about the first astronauts and their flights, called "The Right Stuff." These brave astronauts became American heroes. They included John Glenn who was the first American to orbit the Earth in nineteen sixty-two.

The next step was Project Gemini. These spaceships could hold two men. The flights showed that astronauts could fly in space, do complex tasks like linking with other space vehicles and even work outside their spacecraft.

VOICE TWO:

Project Apollo was NASA's biggest effort up to that time. The Apollo spacecraft could hold three astronauts. It was powered by a huge Saturn Five rocket, the first rocket designed by NASA only for space exploration. But the project began with tragedy. In early nineteen sixty-seven, three astronauts were killed in a fire while testing Apollo One.

Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to step on the moon

Space scientists learned important lessons from the disaster and the following missions were successful. The most exciting one was Apollo Eleven. It landed astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the moon's Sea of Tranquility. Hundreds of millions of people around the world watched Neil Armstrong take his first step on the moon on July twentieth, nineteen sixty-nine.

NEIL ARMSTRONG: "That's one small step for man. One giant leap for mankind."

VOICE ONE:

Five more flights landed on the moon, ending with Apollo Seventeen in nineteen seventy-two. A total of twelve Americans walked on the moon. Steven Dick, NASA's chief historian, has written about the effect of the Apollo project on society, especially its view of Earth from the moon. He wrote: "The photographs of 'Earthrise", and of the full Earth as a blue marble suspended in space, fragile and without national boundaries, changed humankind's view of Earth forever."

VOICE TWO:

The success of Apollo ended the space race. It also provided a chance for Americans and Soviets to join in the first international space flight, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in July of nineteen seventy-five. The project was the start of cooperation in space. It was also the end of the first part of NASA's manned spaceflight program.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

The first shuttle launch on April 12, 1981

In nineteen seventy-two, President Richard Nixon approved a completely new space project. It would be the world's first reusable space vehicle. The project was the space shuttle program--officially known as the Space Transportation System. Shuttle Columbia, one of five orbiters, made the first flight of the program in April, nineteen eighty-one.

(SOUND)

The space shuttle program has carried many satellites into orbit. It has launched several space exploration vehicles such as the Galileo and Magellan spacecraft. The shuttle also put the Hubble Space telescope into orbit and has serviced the thirteen-meter-long telescope four times. Hubble has discovered planets beyond our solar system and confirmed black holes. It has even helped scientists know the exact age of the universe.

VOICE TWO:

The International Space Station in February 2008

The space shuttle program is closely linked with international efforts to have a permanent presence in space. The shuttle has helped build the International Space Station whose first crew arrived in November of two thousand. The Space Station is expected to be completed in two thousand ten. That year will also be the last for space shuttle missions.

But NASA's space shuttle program has also been marked with tragedy. In January of nineteen eighty-six, the shuttle Challenger exploded seventy-three seconds after launch, killing all seven astronauts. Two years later, the shuttle program returned and flew eighty-seven successful missions. But tragedy struck again in February, two thousand three. The shuttle Columbia came apart while reentering the Earth's atmosphere. Seven more astronauts died. These incidents remind everyone of the risk of space travel and the bravery and sacrifice of the astronauts.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

In the last fifty years, NASA has sent robotic spacecraft to the moon and all the planets. In the nineteen sixties, the space agency first started to explore other planets with the Mariner probes. A series of Mariner spacecraft visited the planet Venus. Years later, the Magellan spacecraft mapped Venus in great detail.

In nineteen seventy-four, Mariner Ten visited Mercury, the closest planet to the sun. NASA returned to Mercury in two thousand eight with the Messenger spacecraft.

VOICE TWO:

Among the most successful of NASA's robotic explorers are the Voyager One and Two spacecraft. They built on the success of the earlier Pioneer Ten and Eleven. Voyager One visited Jupiter and Saturn.

Voyager Two added Uranus and Neptune to the list of planets NASA has visited. It discovered rings and many new moons orbiting those worlds. Today, Voyager One has traveled farther than any other object made by humans. It is almost sixteen billion kilometers from the sun, beyond the reach of the flow of particles known as the solar wind.

The Galileo mission to Jupiter and the Cassini/Huygens mission to Saturn have greatly increased our knowledge of the two giant planets.

VOICE ONE:

An artist's picture of the Phoenix Mars Lander

NASA has visited Mars more often than any other planet. Mars continues to interest scientists searching for life because it is known to have water. Mariner spacecraft first visited the planet in the nineteen sixties. In the mid nineteen seventies, the Viking One and Two spacecraft returned detailed pictures of the red planet. The Viking project also put landers on Mars and tested its soil.

More than twenty years later, NASA returned to Mars with its Global Surveyor. Several missions to Mars during this period failed. But spacecraft like the Mars Odyssey and the Mars Exploration Rovers have gathered huge amounts of information about the planet. The Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, continue to operate on the red planet along with the Phoenix Mars Lander.

VOICE TWO:

An artist's picture of the Orion Crew Exploration vehicle orbiting the moon

We have had time to discuss only a few of the most interesting programs of NASA's past and present. Today, NASA is a huge agency with almost nineteen thousand employees who work at ten main centers around the country. Its budget for two thousand nine is about seventeen and a half billion dollars.

NASA is already planning the next generation of exploration vehicles. They include the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle and a reusable moon lander. And NASA plans to establish a center to produce power on the moon by two thousand twenty-four.

Yet the return to the moon is only the first small step. Anyone who works for NASA will tell you that Mars is the next goal for human spaceflight. And there is no reason to think that the urge to explore will end after that goal is reached.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

This program was written and produced by Mario Ritter. I'm Barbara Klein.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Steve Ember. For more information about NASA, visit our Web site, voaspecialenglish.com. Join us again next week for Explorations in VOA Special English.

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How the Heart Works

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This is the VOA Special English Health Report.

We talked last week about the life of famed heart doctor Michael DeBakey. He died this month at age ninety-nine.

Today, we talk about the object of his work. The heart is a complex organ that starts beating a few weeks after conception. At this point the heart is a tube. In the coming days, it grows and bends into the shape of the heart.

Doctor Craig Smith uses a model to explain the heart operation he performed on former president Bill Clinton in September 2004

Later, it divides into four parts. As the heart beats, it pumps blood through these chambers and the blood vessels in the body. The body is estimated to have at least ninety-six thousand kilometers of blood vessels.

That is about the same as two and a half times around the Earth. But blood goes the distance in about twenty seconds on its way back to the heart. Each day the heart pumps about eight thousand liters of blood.

The blood feeds the brain and other organs with oxygen and nutrients. It also carries away carbon dioxide and other waste.

The heart pumps by expanding and contracting of muscle. In a healthy adult, the heart beats an average of seventy-two times a minute -- about one hundred thousand times a day.

A healthy adult heart is about the size of two fists and looks like a piece of red meat. But in overweight people, it can look yellow because of fat.

Rates of heart disease started growing sharply in the second half of the twentieth century. As machines did more and more work, people did less and less. Not only did physical activity decrease, but people started eating more and more processed foods.

Experts say a diet low in fats and high in fruits, vegetables, proteins and whole grains may help reduce the risk of heart disease. At least thirty minutes a day of physical activity, enough to work up a sweat, can also help. Also important to good health is a good night's sleep.

Cardiovascular disease is caused by disorders of the heart and blood vessels. It includes heart attacks, strokes and high blood pressure. The World Health Organization says there are three major causes: tobacco use, physical inactivity and an unhealthy diet.

The W.H.O. says cardiovascular disease is the world's leading cause of death. And it is predicted to remain that way unless more action is taken. Experts estimate that it could kill twenty million people a year by twenty fifteen. An estimated seventeen and a half million people died in the year two thousand five. Around eighty percent of them died in low- and middle-income countries.

And that's the VOA Special English Health Report, written by Caty Weaver. For more health news, go to voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Steve Ember.

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Building a Windbreak to Protect Crops

This is the VOA Special English Agriculture Report.

A windbreak

Farmers use different kinds of soil conservation methods to protect their land from damage by farming and the forces of nature. One important form of soil conservation is the use of windbreaks.

Windbreaks are barriers formed by trees and other plants. Farmers plant these barriers around their fields.

Windbreaks stop the wind from blowing soil away. They also keep the wind from destroying or damaging crops. They are very important for protecting grain crops.

There have been studies done on windbreaks in parts of West Africa, for example. These found that grain harvests can be twenty percent higher in fields protected by windbreaks compared to fields without such protection.

But windbreaks seem to work best when they allow some winds to pass through them. If the wall of trees and plants blocks the wind completely, then violent air motions will take place close to the ground. These motions will lift soil into the air where it will be blown away.

For this reason, a windbreak is best if it has only sixty to eighty percent of the trees and plants needed to make a solid line. An easy rule to remember is that windbreaks can protect areas up to ten times the height of the tallest trees in the windbreak.

There should be at least two lines in each windbreak. One line should be large trees. The second line, right next to it, can be shorter trees and other plants with leaves. Locally grown trees and plants are best for windbreaks.

If the quality of the land is not very good, studies have shown that one kind of tree that can grow well is the white pine. Another is the loblolly pine.

Windbreaks not only protect land and crops from the wind. Surplus trees can be cut down and used to provide wood.

Trees reduce the damaging effects of wind and rain. Their roots help protect soil from being washed away. And trees do something else -- they can provide grazing animals with shade from the sun.

And that's the VOA Special Agriculture Report. You can get more information about windbreaks and other forms of soil conservation at enterpriseworks.org. And you can also learn more about agriculture at our Web site, voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Jim Tedder.

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A New Way to Help Predict Earthquakes

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VOICE ONE:

This is SCIENCE IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English. I'm Barbara Klein.

VOICE TWO:

Collapsed buildings in China's Sichuan province after the earthquake in May

And I'm Steve Ember. This week, we will tell about a new way to help predict earthquakes. We also tell about an American study on happiness. And, we tell about an international effort to prevent deaths and injuries in hospital operating rooms.

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VOICE ONE:

Scientists in the United States have developed a method that may help to predict earthquakes earlier. They say it could give people who live in deadly earthquake areas enough warning to leave before an earthquake hits.

Currently, the most modern systems for predicting earthquakes find them only a short time before the event. Like most strong earthquakes, the one that hit southwestern China in May was not identified early enough for people to flee the area. That earthquake killed sixty-nine thousand people.

But scientists who study earthquakes are reporting that new technology could measure very small changes in the Earth's surface. Their report was published this month in Nature magazine.

VOICE TWO:

Fenglin Niu is a seismologist with Rice University in Houston, Texas. He and his team performed experiments along California's San Andreas Fault, an area famous for its many earthquakes.

The team placed highly sensitive electrical devices about one kilometer below ground in two different places. The devices were able to measure even small changes in air pressure on the Earth's surface. The scientists say such changes are caused when rocks push together, forcing air out of small cracks in the rock. When this happens, seismic waves travel faster than usual through the rock.

VOICE ONE:

The experiment was performed near Parkfield, California. Two earthquakes hit the area in late two thousand five. The first took place on December twenty-fifth. A smaller earthquake struck five days later.

The scientists noted changes in the Earth's surface about ten hours before the first quake struck. That quake measured three in intensity. They then found similar changes taking place two hours before the other quake struck five days later.

VOICE TWO:

The earthquake in China rated seven point nine in intensity. If additional tests confirm the changes are linked to earthquakes, the scientists believe their equipment could be used for early warning systems. A system that provides a signal ten hours before a major earthquake could help move people from the area and save lives.

The scientists now hope they can find earthquakes with even greater intensity by placing their equipment deeper in the ground.

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VOICE ONE:

Do you live in a happy country? Chances are strong that you do. Results of a recent study have shown that many people around the world are happier now than in the past. The study is called the World Values Survey. Researchers responsible for the study are based at the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research in the United States.

The researchers gathered information from opinion studies done in more than ninety countries or territories. Those studies were completed between nineteen eighty-one and two thousand seven. More than three hundred fifty thousand people told how happy or unhappy they were feeling. They also said how generally satisfied or unsatisfied they felt.

The results were reported in the publication "Perspectives on Psychological Science."

VOICE TWO:

University of Michigan political scientist Ronald Inglehart directed the World Values Survey. Mister Inglehart says the results surprised him. He said it is widely believed that it is nearly impossible for happiness levels for a whole country to improve. He said many earlier studies have suggested that happiness levels do not really change.

Denmark was found to be the world's happiest country. Mister Inglehart notes that Denmark's health care is good and few Danes are hungry. Zimbabwe was rated as the least happy country. Zimbabweans have suffered from political and social unrest.

VOICE ONE:

Other nations in the top ten for happiness include Iceland, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Canada and Colombia. Colombia suffers from violence in some areas. But Mister Inglehart says Colombians share strong family, friendship and religious ties. He says those qualities are common in areas along the Caribbean Sea. And he says they help balance economic and political weakness. Also, America's Central Intelligence Agency says the Colombian government has been working harder to control the violence.

VOICE TWO:

The researchers compared the most recent World Values Survey with information from a study completed in nineteen forty-six. Several areas showed rising happiness levels. They include India, Mexico, Northern Ireland, Puerto Rico and South Korea.

Over the years, India's economy has grown. An improved financial situation is an important sign of happiness, the political scientist says. But living in a country that is becoming more democratic may be more important. So may acceptance of minorities. Mister Inglehart says the study shows a strong link between happiness and freedom to choose how life is lived. It shows that equality between men and women is another reason.

VOICE ONE:

Mister Inglehart says Northern Ireland is doing well financially and moving toward sexual equality. He also says the area has the traditional bases of friendship, family ties and religion. Northern Ireland has suffered violence in the past. But he says most people there live a normal life today.

Some places showed less happiness than in the past. They were Austria, Belgium, Britain and the former West Germany. However, Mister Inglehart says these areas were still in the top twenty-five percent for happiness last year. And, he says, that rating still shows a good level of satisfaction.

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VOICE TWO:

Doctors around the world now perform more than two hundred thirty million major operations every year. The World Health Organization says preventable injuries and deaths from medical operations are a growing concern.

Experts estimate that at least one million people die every year because of complications from surgical treatments. The W.H.O. says studies suggest that about half of these problems may be preventable. The United Nations agency hopes to reduce mistakes with a program built around a new Surgical Safety Checklist.

VOICE ONE:

Atul Gawande works at the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston, Massachusetts. He helped develop the Safe Surgery Saves Lives program. Doctor Gawande and other researchers studied records from fifty-six countries.

In two thousand four, surgical complications in developed countries led to death in less than one percent of cases. In developing countries, the rate was five to ten percent. Complications can happen during an operation or after. For example, an infection might develop after an operation.

VOICE TWO:

More than two hundred medical societies and health ministries have joined in the effort to make surgery safer. The new list is similar to what airplane pilots use before flying.

One member of the surgical team is responsible for the checklist. The first questions are asked before the patient receives anesthesia. The very first step is to confirm the patient's identity and the operation to be performed.

More questions are asked before the first cut. All members of the team are supposed to identify themselves by name and job. Another step is to confirm whether the patient was given antibiotic drugs within the last hour to prevent infection.

VOICE ONE:

The third and final part of the checklist is completed before the patient leaves the operating room. For example, surgical equipment is counted to make sure nothing unnecessary stays in the patient.

At eight locations worldwide, these actions were being done only thirty-six percent of the time. But the W.H.O. says use of the list increased that to sixty-eight percent. Some hospitals reached almost one hundred percent.

Early results from one thousand patients showed a drop in complications and deaths. Doctor Gawande says the checklist has helped him in his own surgery. A final version of the list is expected by the end of the year.

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VOICE TWO:

This SCIENCE IN THE NEWS program was written by Brianna Blake, Jerilyn Watson and Caty Weaver. Brianna Blake also was our producer. I'm Steve Ember.

VOICE ONE:

And I'm Barbara Klein. Join us at this time next week for more news about science on the Voice of America.

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US Supreme Court: When Society Needs Answers, if Only on a 5-to-4 Vote

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VOICE ONE:

Welcome to THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English. I'm Steve Ember.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Faith Lapidus. This week on our program, we turn our attention to the nine most important judges in the country.

United States Supreme Court building in Washington, D.C.

COURT CRIER: "The honorable, the chief justice and the associate justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. Oyez! Oyez! Oyez! All persons having business before the honorable, the Supreme Court of the United States, are admonished to draw near and give their attention, for the court is now sitting. God save the United States and this honorable court."

VOICE ONE:

The words of the court crier are a modern-day reminder of the long history of the nation's highest court. Justices are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the Senate.

Each term the Supreme Court receives thousands of petitions to hear cases. The court released seventy-two opinions this term.

Three cases, all decided by votes of five to four, got the majority of the attention.

VOICE TWO:

One case involved the District of Columbia -- as in Washington, D.C., the nation's capital. At issue was whether or not a city ban on handguns violated the Second Amendment to the Constitution.

JOHN ROBERTS: "We will hear argument today in case seven two-ninety, District of Columbia versus Heller."

VOICE TWO:

Dick Heller, a security guard who wanted to keep a gun at home for self-defense.

Chief Justice John Roberts introduced the case. Then he called on Walter Dellinger, a lawyer for the District of Columbia.

Artist's drawing of Walter Dellinger arguing for the District of Columbia in the gun ban case before the Supreme Court

WALTER DELLINGER: "Good morning, Mister Chief Justice, and may it please the court. The Second Amendment was a direct response to concern over Article One Section Eight of the Constitution, which gave the new national Congress the surprising, perhaps even the shocking, power to organize, arm and presumably disarm the state militias. What is at issue this morning is the scope and nature of the individual right protected by the resulting amendment, and the first text to consider is the phrase protecting a right to keep and bear arms ... "

VOICE ONE:

The Supreme Court heard the case in March. It announced its decision in June, in the last major ruling of the term. The court declared the handgun ban unconstitutional.

VOICE TWO:

The Second Amendment was approved in seventeen ninety-one. It says: "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed."

VOICE ONE:

Legal experts and non-experts alike have long debated what these words mean. Does the amendment protect the rights of a group -- a well-regulated militia? -- or the rights of an individual?

And how does a court balance a collective desire to stop gun violence with an individual's desire for protection?

VOICE TWO:

Justice John Paul Stevens wrote the main dissent, saying: "When each word in the text is given full effect, the Amendment is most naturally read to secure to the people a right to use and possess arms in conjunction with service in a well-regulated militia."

VOICE ONE:

The five justices in the majority, however, ruled that the amendment does protect an individual right to own a gun. But they suggested that does not mean anyone can own a gun, or any kind they want, or carry it in places like schools or government buildings.

Writing for the court, Justice Antonin Scalia said, "Like most rights, the right secured by the Second Amendment is not unlimited."

The ruling may have settled one question. But critics said it raised others by not explaining enough what the limits may be.

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VOICE TWO:

Camp Delta at the U.S. Naval Station at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, has held foreign prisoners since 2002. Image reviewed by the U.S. military.

Another ruling involved the rights of foreign terrorism suspects held at the American naval base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.

The court ruled that the prisoners held as enemy combatants have the constitutional right of habeas corpus. That means they have a right to appeal their detention in civilian courts. More than two hundred detainees remain at Guantanamo.

"The laws and Constitution are designed to survive, and remain in force, in extraordinary times," said the ruling in June.

The dissenters, including Chief Justice John Roberts, said the decision will only make it more difficult to fight terrorism.

VOICE ONE:

Last Monday, at Guantanamo, the United States opened its first military war crimes tribunal since World War Two.

That same day, Attorney General Michael Mukasey urged Congress to write new rules limiting the power of civilian courts in hearings of detainees. He said Congress needs to settle what he called the "difficult questions left open by the Supreme Court."

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VOICE TWO:

In another ruling in June, the Supreme Court barred death sentences for child rape. The court, in a case from Louisiana, found execution unconstitutional for crimes that do not involve a death.

Justice Anthony Kennedy gave the opinion for the court, as he also did in the Guantanamo case. He said thirty-six states and the federal government permit execution, but only six states approve it for child rape. He said there was evidence of "a national consensus" against capital punishment for that crime.

But a military law blog pointed out something that the parties in the case, and the court, missed. The federal government does permit the death penalty for child rape. Congress, in a two thousand six law, made that offense a crime punishable by death for members of the military.

VOICE ONE:

The Supreme Court can rehear a case, but that is unusual. It can happen only if one of the parties in the case asks for it. Last week, lawyers for the state of Louisiana asked for a rehearing.

The nine justices will consider the petition in September. If they decide to rehear the case, it will go on the court schedule for the new term that begins in October.

By law, the court begins its term on the first Monday. The term lasts a year but the court usually begins its summer recess by the end of June.

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VOICE TWO:

One of the most important powers of the Supreme Court is judicial review. This is the power to judge if a state or federal action is legal under the Constitution. This power did not come from the Constitution. Rather, it developed from cases heard by the court in its early years.

The first Supreme Court met in seventeen ninety. The Supreme Court is the only court that was created by the Constitution. Article Three of the Constitution gave Congress the power to create lower courts.

VOICE ONE:

U.S. Constitution

The federal government has only those powers given to it by the Constitution. All others are held by the states. This is why the United States does not have, for example, a national education system. Education is not discussed in the Constitution. So each state was free to develop its own system.

All decisions by the Supreme Court are final. There is no appeal. The court can change its mind on issues over time. But the only way to strike down a decision by the court is to amend the Constitution.

VOICE TWO:

The Supreme Court is asked to decide many of society's most difficult questions.

One ruling has been debated for the past thirty-five years. The court ruled that the Constitution protects a woman's right to have an abortion, at least during the first three months of pregnancy.

Social conservatives want the court to overturn its ruling in the case known as Roe v. Wade. The court has narrowly upheld its decision.

VOICE ONE:

People may expect a Democratic president to appoint justices who are more liberal and a Republican to choose more conservative ones. Republican candidate John McCain says Roe v. Wade "should be overturned." Democrat Barack Obama calls himself "a strong believer in a women's right to choose with her doctor, her pastor and her family."

But things do not always work out the way people, or presidents, may expect. John Paul Stevens, considered the most liberal justice on the court, was appointed by Gerald Ford, a Republican. Justice Stevens joined the court in nineteen seventy-five. He is eighty-eight years old.

VOICE TWO:

What do Americans think of the Supreme Court? Public opinion researchers at Quinnipiac University in Connecticut have been asking people for five years now. They released their latest poll this month.

For the first time they found that more voters disapprove than approve of the job the court is doing on social issues. The difference was narrow: forty-three percent to thirty-nine percent.

Twenty-five percent of voters said the Supreme Court is too liberal. Thirty-one percent said the court is too conservative. But thirty-three percent said the court is "about right."

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VOICE ONE:

Our program was written by Nancy Steinbach and produced by Mario Ritter and Caty Weaver. I'm Steve Ember.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Faith Lapidus. Audio of the Supreme Court came from the Oyez Project, at o-y-e-z dot o-r-g. For a link, along with transcripts and MP3s of our programs, go to voaspecialenglish.com. We hope you join us again next week for THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English.

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Pan: The Critic Panned My Work

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NOW, the VOA Special English program, WORDS AND THEIR STORIES. Today's word, pan, takes us back to the days of the gold rush in California.

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On January twenty-fourth, eighteen forty-eight, a man named James Wilson Marshall discovered gold in the territory of California. The news spread quickly. Thousands rushed west. They traveled on foot, by horseback and by boat to reach the gold fields. By eighteen forty-nine, the great gold rush was on.

Towns and cities grew overnight. Throughout the territory – in the mountains, along the streams and rivers – thousands of people searched for gold. They had food to eat and blankets to cover them. They also had mules to ride, and picks and pans to search for gold.

Some found areas of mountain rock thick with gold. These men got rich. But such areas were few and quickly claimed by the first men to find them. Others searched for gold in the rivers coming down the mountains. They were after pieces of gold that the rains had washed down from above.

The only way to find this gold was by panning. First a gold miner put dirt in a metal pan and added water. Then he shook the pan so that the water would wash the dirt. Slowly, he poured the water out of the pan. If he was a lucky miner, pieces of gold would remain.

Across the nation, newspapers carried stories of the gold being found. One told how thousands of people climbed the mountains looking for gold. Some stories told how others followed the rivers and streams with pans. Each one hoped that the place he claimed panned out well –had some gold.

For many, gold mining did not pan out. For a few, it panned out well. But in time, huge machines were built that could wash many tons of dirt at a time. Panning died out.

The word, however, remained in the language. Today, Americans still say, "It panned out well," when something they have done pleases them. A business, a discovery, a simple event pans out well if it is successful. Unhappily, sometimes things do not pan out.

In recent years, the word pan has taken on another meaning. Today, it also means to criticize. How it got this meaning is hard to discover. But the job of a critic is to sometimes pan the work of a writer, artist or singer.

Sometimes, critics may pan a movie or play so severely that no one will go to see it. There are times, however, when a play became highly successful, even though most of the critics panned it without mercy. The pans should have washed out the play. But, as actors have pointed out, sometimes a critic's pan turns up gold.

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This VOA Special English program, WORDS AND THEIR STORIES, was written by Herb Sutcliffe. I'm Warren Scheer.

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Thurgood Marshall, 1908-1993: First African American to Serve on the US Supreme Court

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VOICE ONE:

This is Gwen Outen.

VOICE TWO:

And this is Doug Johnson with People in America in VOA Special English. Every week we tell about a person who was important in the history of the United States. Today we tell about a man who helped change the racial separation laws of America, Thurgood Marshall.

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VOICE ONE:

Thurgood Marshall was born a free man. But the father of his grandfather was a slave. He had lived in what was the Congo area of Africa. A man from the eastern American city of Baltimore, Maryland, brought him to the United States. He later set him free.

Thurgood Marshall

Thurgood Marshall was born in Baltimore on July second, nineteen-oh-eight. In that city, and in many other parts of the United States at that time, black people were separated from white people by law. Black children did not go to school with white children. Black people lived only in areas where other blacks lived.

VOICE TWO:

Over the years, Thurgood Marshall became a very good storyteller. He told stories about himself, or about places he had visited. Often, the stories were funny. But most also had a serious message.

One story was about being in trouble with his teachers when he was a boy in Baltimore.

Mister Marshall said one of his teachers punished him by sending him to the room where the school's heating equipment was kept. There he was told to read and remember the words of the Constitution of the United States.

The Constitution is a long document. Thurgood Marshall said he read all of it -- more than once -- and learned to remember most of it.

He said this schoolboy punishment gave him a life-long respect for the Constitution. As he grew older, he began to think about the Constitution's guarantees of freedom. Those guarantees, he believed, should be for people of all races, not just for white people.

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VOICE ONE:

Thurgood Marshall attended Lincoln University in the state of Pennsylvania. He completed his studies, with honors, in nineteen thirty. He wanted to go to law school at the University of Maryland. But officials at that school refused to let him attend because he was black. So he went to law school at Howard University in Washington D.C. Howard University was a school for African Americans. Thurgood Marshall graduated first in his class.

After completing his law studies, he accepted the case of a young black man who wanted to become a lawyer, too. The young man wanted to attend the University of Maryland law school. It was the same school that had refused to admit Thurgood Marshall. Again, the school refused to let a black man become a student. So, Mister Marshall took legal action. He won the case. The young black man was permitted to attend the university's law school.

Thurgood Marshall would go on to win many more cases dealing with racial separation laws. And years later, the University of Maryland would name its law library in his honor.

VOICE TWO:

Thurgood Marshall was a very good lawyer. The people he represented in court were black and poor. He never earned much money. But his name soon became well known. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People offered him a job. He went to work as one of its legal representatives.

In time, he became the organization's chief legal representative. He traveled across the United States. He fought against racial separation laws. He also defended black people who were charged with a crime, but who did not have the money to pay for legal help.

Many of those cases reached America's highest court, the Supreme Court of the United States. During his life as a lawyer, Thurgood Marshall argued cases before the Supreme Court more than thirty times. He lost only a few cases. Slowly, the laws of racial separation in America began to change. Many of those changes were the result of the work of Thurgood Marshall.

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VOICE ONE:

Legal experts say that Thurgood Marshall's most important case was the one known as "Brown versus Board of Education." The case involved the city of Topeka in the middle western state of Kansas.

A law there said that having separate schools for black students and white students was legal, if the schools were the same. It was the idea of "separate but equal". But the schools were not equal. White children received a better education than black children.

Thurgood Marshall agreed to argue the case before the Supreme Court. When newspapers reported this, he began getting messages threatening him with death.

Other civil rights lawyers said he was moving too quickly. They said a defeat in the Brown case would greatly damage the cause of civil rights. They told him to wait, to move more carefully and slowly.

VOICE TWO:

Thurgood Marshall did not listen to the threats against his life. And he did not listen to those who said he should move more slowly. The Supreme Court heard the case in nineteen fifty-four. Mister Marshall said it was a violation of the Constitution to separate people because of their race.

So, he argued, the racially separated schools in Topeka, Kansas, were illegal. He added that nothing could be equal in racially separated schools.

One Supreme Court justice asked him to explain what he meant by the word equal. He answered: "Equal means getting the same thing, at the same time, and in the same place." The Supreme Court agreed. It ruled that no one could be rejected from a school in Topeka because of race.

VOICE ONE:

The case of "Brown versus Board of Education" provided the basis for other court decisions. It helped destroy the terrible wall of legal racial separation throughout the United States. Some people say it is the most important Supreme Court decision of the twentieth century.

That decision was the beginning of years of legal battles against racial separation in America's schools. It also sent a message to the people of the nation that black Americans had the same rights as white Americans. Many African Americans said Mister Marshall's victory in nineteen fifty-four changed their lives and their futures.

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VOICE TWO:

In nineteen sixty-one, President John Kennedy named Thurgood Marshall to be a judge of a federal appeals court. During his years on that court, Judge Marshall wrote more than one hundred opinions on different legal issues. Several of his opinions from those days have been approved as law by a majority of the Supreme Court.

Justice Marshall served on the Supreme Court for 24 years

In nineteen sixty-seven, President Lyndon Johnson nominated Thurgood Marshall to the Supreme Court. President Johnson said the nomination was the right thing to do, and the right time to do it. Thurgood Marshall became the first black person to serve as a Supreme Court Justice. He served for twenty-four years.

Justice Marshall wrote opinions about legal representation in America's criminal justice system. He said everyone has the right to be represented by a good lawyer, no matter how guilty they may be.

In his last years on the Supreme Court, he often voted against the majority of the more conservative members. Justice Marshall always voted in dissent in cases in which the majority voted that a death sentence was legal. He said no one should be put to death for any reason.

VOICE ONE:

In nineteen ninety-one, Thurgood Marshall announced that he would retire from the Supreme Court. Some reports said he no longer wanted to fight against the conservative majority of the court. At a news conference, a reporter asked him why he was retiring. Justice Marshall looked at the man and said, simply: "I am getting old and coming apart."

Another reporter asked Justice Marshall how he would like to be remembered. He sat quietly for a moment. Then Thurgood Marshall said: "I want to be remembered for doing the best I could with what I had."

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VOICE TWO:

This program was written by Paul Thompson. It was produced by Lawan Davis. This is Doug Johnson.

VOICE ONE:

And this is Gwen Outen. Listen again next week for People in America in VOA Special English.

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'Naked' Short Selling Gets a Close Eye

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This is the VOA Special English Economics Report.

The Securities and Exchange Commission in the United States recently moved to protect nineteen major financial stocks. The agency gave an emergency order to restrict what is known as "naked" short selling of those stocks. This is a form of stock trading that is being blamed for sharp drops in the price of some financial stocks.

Short selling is a way to make money when a stock price falls. It involves borrowing shares of stock and then selling them in the hope that the stock will lose value. Later, the shares are purchased back and the loan is settled.

If the stock has lost value, the selling price will be greater than the purchase price. The difference is profit for the investor. If the stock price rises, the investor loses money.

Short selling is considered a necessary part of an efficiently operating market.

With naked short selling, however, trading takes place with shares that have not yet been borrowed -- and may never be. Naked shorting lets traders short sell large amounts of stock that may not be available to borrow in the market. Sometimes, lenders of securities tell several short sellers that they can borrow the same shares.

Christopher Cox

The chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission, Christopher Cox, says naked short selling is not out of control. But he says the order was needed as a preventative step to help bring confidence back in financial markets. He says the goal is to stop naked shorting that is done abusively to drive down a stock price.

He said Thursday that the agency wants to extend what he called operational protections throughout the market.

The emergency order went into effect on Monday. The ending date is this coming Tuesday but it could be extended into August.

The American Bankers Association has urged the commission to extend the restrictions to all publicly traded banks. It says protecting only a few big banks will cause short sellers to target smaller ones.

The July fifteenth order covers seventeen international banks as well as the nation's two largest housing finance companies. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have lately been the main support for the troubled housing market. But their share prices have fallen sharply this year.

A housing rescue bill on its way to becoming law includes a plan that would let the Treasury invest in Fannie and Freddie if needed. The plan also includes a new regulatory agency with stronger controls over those two companies.

And that's the VOA Special English Economics Report, written by Mario Ritter. I'm Steve Ember.

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Batman Stars, but the Joker Steals the Show in 'The Dark Knight'

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HOST:

Welcome to AMERICAN MOSAIC in VOA Special English.

(MUSIC)

I'm Doug Johnson.

Today, we listen to new music by Madonna …

Answer a question about the American railroad system …

And report on some big, bright ticket sales for the "The Dark Knight."

(MUSIC)

"The Dark Night"

HOST:

Last weekend was a historic one for the American movie industry. It was the biggest three-day weekend in Hollywood history. Movies earned more than two hundred fifty million dollars. The most popular movie last weekend was the long awaited Batman movie, "The Dark Knight." That movie made history too. Faith Lapidus has our report.

FAITH LAPIDUS:

Christian Bale as Batman

"The Dark Knight" is now in its second weekend in theaters in America. It had the biggest opening weekend for a film in movie history. By Monday morning it had sold more than one hundred fifty-eight million dollars in tickets. That beat last year's record of one hundred fifty-one million dollars for the movie "Spider-Man 3."

"The Dark Knight" is British writer and director Christopher Nolan's second Batman movie. Welsh actor Christian Bale plays the comic book superhero, as he did in Nolan's two thousand five film, "Batman Begins." Batman is a mysterious crime fighter who wears special clothes and a mask to hide his true identity, billionaire Bruce Wayne.

Heath Ledger as the Joker

Batman's enemy, the Joker, is played by Australian actor Heath Ledger. "The Dark Knight" was the last film Ledger completed before his death in January at the age of twenty-eight. He died from an accidental overdose of medicine.

The Joker wears ugly white make-up on his face to cover wounds that shape a permanent and horrible red smile. Critics and co-stars have praised Ledger's performance. There is talk of a possible Oscar nomination for Ledger. The character of the Joker is extremely evil. Movie critic Roger Ebert describes this Joker as "more than a villain." He says the Joker's actions are designed to present his enemies and innocent people with moral tests that appear to have no good answer.

Three years ago, "Batman Begins" explored Bruce Wayne's tragic childhood and how he became Batman. "The Dark Knight" is a history of the Joker. Here Christopher Nolan discusses how he and Ledger wanted a fresh representation of the character.

Christopher Nolan

CHRISTOPHER NOLAN: "We really focused in on this idea of The Joker as an absolute force of pure anarchy. Somebody devoted to chaos. Somebody who truly does just take pleasure in tearing down the world around himself. That's the fear we wanted to inspire in the audience. That's the threat we wanted underlying everything in the film. And that's something we've not seen from this character before. Heath was able to put together a number of different attitudes for the character. But he never loses sight of the humanity of the character. That the character is a real human being and, therefore, is a real dangerous force."

FAITH LAPIDUS:

Many critics praise "The Dark Knight." Other critics say Heath Ledger is the only thing that makes the film worth seeing. As the Joker himself says:

HEATH LEDGER: "This town deserves a better class of criminal. And I'm gonna give it to 'em."

American Railroad History

HOST:

Our listener question this week comes from Bosnia. Danijel Djordjic wants to know more about the history of the American railroad and the Museum of the American Railroad.

An important event in railroad history took place in eighteen sixty-two. President Abraham Lincoln signed the Pacific Railway Act. This approved the first transcontinental railroad that would be built from Omaha, Nebraska to Sacramento, California. It would later link the railroads of the eastern United States with California on the Pacific Coast.

Completion in 1869 of the transcontinental railroad

When the transcontinental railroad was completed, the Central Pacific railroad connected to the Union Pacific railroad at Promontory Summit, Utah. A gold object was placed in the ground in eighteen sixty-nine to mark the completion of the railroad. Some consider this Golden Spike ceremony to be the first live mass media event in American history. Telegraph machines communicated that the railroad had been finished to people from the east to west coasts.

The creation of the first transcontinental railroad made travel easier for Americans. Instead of taking six months to travel from one side of the country to the other, it now took only one week.

Until about nineteen twenty, almost all people traveling from one city to another used trains for transportation. However, in the nineteen forties, cars became a more common way to travel. In the nineteen fifties, airplanes became popular. Still, the train was able to stand the test of time.

Today, the government-owned company called Amtrak is the largest operating passenger train system in the United States. It provides rail service in forty-six states and carries about twenty-five million passengers a year.

Many museums have been created to teach people about the history of trains. The Museum of the American Railroad, in Dallas, Texas, is one of the largest. It contains parts of many trains from different time periods. Visitors can walk through the trains to get an idea of what train travel was like. People continue to use trains today to enjoy the beauty of America.

Madonna

HOST:

Madonna has been reinventing her sound and image for over twenty-five years. Her latest record, "Hard Candy," is her eleventh studio album. "Hard Candy" is filled with dance beats influenced by hip-hop music. Pat Bodnar tells us more.

(MUSIC: "Beat Goes On")

PAT BODNAR:

Madonna

That was the song "Beat Goes On" which Madonna performs with the rap artist Kanye West. When she was ready to make a new album, Madonna was not sure what kind of music she wanted to make. So she thought about the records she was listening to that she loved. She decided she wanted to work with Pharrell Williams, Timbaland, and Justin Timberlake to create the new sound of her album.

Here is "Candy Shop," a sexy song that makes you want to dance. It is a good example of the kind of music that has made Madonna a star.

(MUSIC)

Madonna has been working on several other projects. She will be performing throughout Europe and the United States starting next month. She recently finished working on a documentary film about parentless children with AIDS in Malawi. The film "I Am Because We Are" has a personal connection for the singer. She recently adopted a young son from Malawi.

We close with a song that expresses another form of social concern. In "4 Minutes" Justin Timberlake and Madonna have only a short amount of time to save the world. This best-selling song is filled with the energy of two skillful artists who enjoy making musical magic together.

(MUSIC)

HOST:

I'm Doug Johnson. I hope you enjoyed our program today.

It was written by Caty Weaver, Elizabeth Stern and Dana Demange, who was also the producer. To read the text of this program and download audio, go to our Web site, voaspecialenglish.com.

Join us again next week for AMERICAN MOSAIC, VOA's radio magazine in Special English.

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