Risk of Crossed Paths Grows in Increasingly Crowded Skies and Space

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Studies show that most bird strikes to civilian aircraft are never reported. Also, old rocket parts and dead satellites present a danger to spacecraft in Earth orbit. Transcript of radio broadcast:

VOICE ONE:

I’m Steve Ember.

VOICE TWO:

And I’m Faith Lapidus with EXPLORATIONS in VOA Special English. This week, we tell about a growing threat to airplanes around the world. And we hear about objects in space that are threatening satellites and the International Space Station.

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VOICE ONE:

On January fifteenth, US Airways flight fifteen forty-nine was leaving La Guardia airport near New York City. Everything seemed normal and the weather was good that day. But as the passenger jet climbed to about nine hundred meters in the air, something happened.

A crane removes the US Airways plane from the Hudson River in January

Captain Chesley Sullenberger reported that both of his plane’s engines had struck birds. The engines soon lost all power. The plane was unable to return to the airport. So Captain Sullenberger made a quick decision to land the plane on the freezing water of the nearby Hudson River. The emergency landing was performed perfectly.

Captain Sullenberger’s actions saved the lives of one hundred fifty-five passengers and crew.But the incident brought attention to a real and growing threat to air safety.

VOICE TWO:

Bird strikes happen all over the world. And they are not rare. Bird Strike Committee USA gathers information about such incidents in the United States and around the world. The group is a volunteer committee. It includes members from the Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Agriculture, Defense Department and the aviation industry.

Bird Strike Committee USA says bird strikes cause about six hundred million dollars in damage to American civilian and military aviation each year. The group says fifty-six thousand incidents were reported to the F.A.A. between nineteen ninety and two thousand four. More than seven thousand six hundred bird and other wildlife strikes were reported for civilian aircraft in two thousand seven.

But studies show only about twenty percent of bird strikes to civilian aircraft are reported. These incidents can be deadly. The organization says wildlife strikes have led to the deaths of two hundred nineteen people around the world since nineteen eighty-eight.

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A 1999 picture of a small plane in Atlantic City, New Jersey, that was damaged by a bird

VOICE ONE:

In the United States, aviation officials have taken measures to reduce the risk from bird strikes and dangers from other wildlife since the nineteen sixties.

Federal Aviation Administration rules require airports to study the risks of wildlife to safe airport operations. These studies must consider wildlife activity up to about three thousand meters above an airport and eight kilometers around it. They also must provide detailed information about nearby water and environmental issues that could cause wildlife to gather near an airport.

Michael O’Donnell is director of the F.A.A. Office of Airport Safety and Standards. He says there are about five hundred sixty commercial service airports in the United States. Not all airports need wildlife control plans. But the ones that do work closely with government agencies.The Department of Agriculture, for example, provides biologists to help study wildlife that could be a danger to air travel.

VOICE TWO:

The number of reported bird strikes has increased since nineteen ninety. One reason is that there are more birds. Protected species have reproduced in huge numbers. For example, permanent populations of Canada geese in North America have increased three hundred percent in eighteen years to four million birds.

Other birds have spread quickly across areas with heavy air traffic. The European starling was released for the first time in the United States over one hundred years ago. Today, there are more than one hundred fifty million of these birds. They are called “feathered bullets” because of their high body density.

Another reason for the increase in bird strikes is the growing popularity of air travel in the United States. Since nineteen eighty, flights have increased by about two percent each year. In two thousand seven, the number reached twenty-eight million.

Airports have used many different methods to reduce the number of birds and other wildlife nearby. These include lasers, noise makers and, when necessary, killing problem animals.

A plane in Medford, Oregon, that was damaged by a bird strike in 2003

VOICE ONE:

The F.A.A. is also seeking ways to help planes avoid birds. Since the emergency landing of flight fifteen forty-nine, special radars have received a lot of attention. The air travel agency is currently testing a radar system at the international airport in Seattle, Washington. The F.A.A. plans to test new radar systems at airports in Chicago, Illinois; Dallas, Texas; and New York City.

Michael O’Donnell says the F.A.A. is spending between seven hundred fifty thousand and one million dollars a year on radar research.

The United States space agency already uses an Aircraft Birdstrike Avoidance Radar at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The radar is built by the company DeTect of Panama City, Florida. It was put in place to help protect the space shuttle from bird strike damage. And the Air Force currently uses radar developed by DeTect at several bases.

Technology also has a part in the growing threat from birds. Today’s large passenger planes have fewer but more powerful engines than older models. That means it is easier for planes with only two engines to strike a flock of birds and lose power in both engines.

But Michael O’Donnell says the number of serious bird strike incidents has remained at or below two hundred each year. He credits this to better education and knowledge about the issue.

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VOICE TWO:

From bird strikes, we turn to another kind of threat caused by objects in space. The number of man-made objects in Earth orbit has been growing each year. These include satellites, old rocket parts and other pieces of spacecraft.

Nicholas Johnson is chief scientist for orbital debris for the United States space agency. He says there are more than three hundred thousand small objects or pieces of debris in orbit that are larger than one centimeter. Any one of these could cause damage to a spacecraft. This is because orbital debris travels at speeds of thirty-two thousand kilometers an hour or more. Even a very small object can be a major threat.

A space shuttle window is inspected for damage by orbital debris

VOICE ONE:

Space debris made news on March twelfth when a part of an old rocket motor about ten centimeters in size threatened the International Space Station. NASA warned the three astronauts inside about one hour before the object was to reach the area of the station.

Americans Mike Fincke and Sandra Magnus and Russian Yury Lonchakov quickly moved into the Soyuz emergency escape vehicle as a safety measure. They spent eleven tense minutes in the capsule.

It is unclear how close the object came to the station. But the piece was big enough to have caused severe damage. On March twenty-second, NASA again ordered the astronauts on the linked space station and shuttle Discovery to move out of the way of another piece of debris from a rocket.

The space station has been hit in the past by very small debris. But these strikes caused little damage, mostly to the station’s solar energy collectors.

VOICE TWO:

A more costly incident took place on February tenth. An old Russian military satellite and a United States communications satellite crashed into each other eight hundred kilometers above Siberia in Russia.

Russia had launched the Kosmos satellite in nineteen ninety-three. But it had not operated for ten years. It was one of hundreds of inactive satellites that remain in orbit.

The American Iridium thirty-three satellite was used for telephone communications. It was owned by Iridium Satellite, a company based in Bethesda, Maryland. The company said the loss caused little interference with its service at the time. Before the collision, Iridium had a group of sixty-six satellites in orbit.

The United States Space Surveillance Network is closely studying the collision involving the Russian satellite. The agency is part of United States Central Command. It follows over eighteen thousand pieces of debris as small as the size of a baseball.

A computer image from the European Space Agency shows an artist's version of orbital debris above Earth

VOICE ONE:

The collision of the Russian and American satellites was the first of its kind in over fifty years of space travel. It spread hundreds of pieces of debris.

But the biggest debris-causing event took place in January, two thousand seven. China tested an anti-satellite missile by destroying one of its weather satellites. The test broke the satellite apart into at least two thousand eight hundred identifiable pieces. The debris now circles the Earth in orbits from two hundred kilometers to over three thousand eight hundred kilometers.

Currently, there is no treaty to control the spread of space debris. Scientists have proposed many ideas for cleaning up space. They include nets, giant collecting arms and powerful laser beams that would move or destroy space junk. But for now, these are just ideas. And, as more nations launch spacecraft, the risk of debris strikes will only grow.

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VOICE TWO:

This program was written and produced by Mario Ritter. I'm Faith Lapidus.

VOICE ONE:

And I'm Steve Ember.Transcripts, MP3s and podcasts of our programs are at voaspecialenglish.com. Join us again next week for Explorations in VOA Special English.

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Male Circumcision Reduces Chances of Human Papillomavirus

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A new study shows a lower risk of herpes and HPV in men who are circumcised. Transcript of radio broadcast:

This is the VOA Special English Health Report.

Male circumcision is the cutting off of a small amount of skin from the tip of the penis. In many parts of the world it is done when a baby is a few days old. However, in other parts of the world it is unacceptable.

Studies have shown that male circumcision can reduce a man's risk of getting HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Now, a new study shows that it can also reduce a man's risk of getting human papillomavirus, or HPV. The research also shows circumcision reduces the risk for another common sexually transmitted infection, genital herpes. The study was published in the New England Journal of Medicine.

A man waits for a circumcision in Mbabane, Swaziland

The study was led by scientists at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland and Makerere University in Uganda. It involved about three thousand four hundred uncircumcised Ugandan men between the ages of fifteen and forty-nine. None had HIV, genital herpes or HPV at the start of the study. The men were split into two groups. One group got immediate circumcisions. The others had it done two years later.

All the men were tested for sexually passed diseases four times in the next two years. The researchers found that those who had been circumcised were twenty-eight percent less likely to get genital herpes than uncircumcised men. They were thirty-three percent less likely to get HPV.

Ronald Gray of Johns Hopkins was a lead investigator. He says the team will now study whether female partners of the men in the study experienced any reduction of risk of the diseases. This is especially important in the case of human papillomavirus.

HPV causes cervical cancer. That disease kills almost three hundred thousand women around the world every year. It is the number one cancer killer of women in poor countries.

There is a vaccine against the human papillomavirus. American medical officials have advised that the treatment, called Gardasil, be given to girls around age eleven. But, like circumcision, it is an issue of public debate. Some American parents argue that the vaccine will make their girls more likely to have sex early. Others question the vaccine's safety and effectiveness.

Now, Gardasil's maker, Merck, has asked the Food and Drug Administration to approve the drug for boys beginning at age nine. The complete treatment costs several hundred dollars.

And that's the VOA Special English Health Report, written by Caty Weaver. I'm Bob Doughty.

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Top US Officer Calls 2009 'Critical' for Afghanistan

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The top U.S. military officer says 2009 is a critical year for implementing President Barack Obama's new strategy for Afghanistan. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Admiral Mike Mullen, spoke Tuesday to a gathering in Washington of senior military officers from South and Central Asia.

Admiral Mullen called on the senior officers to join with the U.S. military in helping restore stability in Afghanistan, and he said time is of the essence. "Just so you know, I have a great sense of urgency about where we are right now with this strategy. The trends in Afghanistan over the last three years are generally not positive. The level of violence is up. I worry a great deal about the overarching impact of the global financial crisis on not just Afghanistan or Pakistan, but all of us in our ability to resource this in the future. So my sense of urgency is, 2009 is a really critical year in executing the strategy," he said.

The admiral was referring to the new strategy for Afghanistan and Pakistan that President Obama announced on Friday. It makes defeating al-Qaida and other terrorist groups the top priority, and calls for more regional cooperation, among other things. "Our United States military is dedicated to getting this right. We know we must work with you to do that. We're anxious and eager to do that. And we're anxious to listen to you on how best to do that," he said.

Admiral Mullen said the longer it takes the international community to address the security situation in Afghanistan, the longer foreign troops will have to be there.

He also said the attack on a police training academy in Lahore on Monday is further evidence that extremists groups are a threat to Pakistan as well as to Afghanistan. He said Pakistani leaders recognize that and are beginning to do things to confront the problem.

Admiral Mullen spoke shortly after the American officer in charge of training Afghanistan's army and police said his staff has sent Washington an analysis of a plan to sharply increase the size of the Afghan forces, beyond the numbers already approved. NATO and the Afghan government have agreed to build an army of 134,000 and a police force of 82,000 by the end of 2011. On Tuesday, Major General Richard Formica told reporters those numbers could nearly double, but the plan has not been fully discussed with other coalition members or approved in either Washington or Kabul.

"It needs to be fully vetted, and when it is then we'll determine a number that makes sense for the security and stability of Afghanistan, that the Afghan government and its people can sustain with the assistance of coalition partners," he said.

General Formica says he will deploy the 4,000 additional U.S. military trainers President Obama approved on Friday to relatively volatile southern and western Afghanistan. He says about 13 U.S. troops will be attached to each Afghan battalion of about 500 soldiers, and also to police units. He says those trainers will work in addition to other American and coalition training units elsewhere in the country.

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Pentagon Reports Iraq Progress, But Effort Still 'Fragile, Uneven'

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A quarterly Pentagon report on the situation in Iraq cites significant progress in recent months on security issues, but also says the progress is still "fragile" and "uneven," and challenges remain in the effort to settle tough political issues and achieve national reconciliation. The document says the security situation in Iraq continued to improve during the reporting period, from December to February. But it says that has allowed some long-standing disputes among national and regional leaders to re-emerge and become a concern for the long term.

The report says more and more Iraqi military units are taking the lead in fighting insurgents, but they continue to need help from the United States and other coalition countries for air support, logistics, intelligence and related capabilities.

Pentagon spokesman Brian Whitman (file photo)

"We continue to see more Iraqis choosing the political process over violence. That's demonstrated by provincial elections being held in 14 of 18 provinces. Despite some of these positive developments, national reconciliation continues to be hindered by the pursuit of ethno-sectarian agendas and disagreement over the distribution of power and resources at all levels," said

The report says violence is at about the same level it was in 2004, after the U.S.-led invasion but before the escalation of violence and sectarian murders that peaked in 2006 and 2007. Overall, it says insurgent attacks fell to 12 per day from 22 per day during the previous three months, while Iraqi civilian casualties fell 35 per cent. It also says there are generally positive trends on economic development, the rule of law, the provision of government services and Iraq's effort to expand its regional diplomatic contacts.

Whitman notes that the report says violent groups have been weakened, but are still capable of conducting large attacks. "High profile attacks involving personnel- and vehicle-borne explosive devices [suicide bombers and car bombs] continue. The number of these attacks and the resulting casualties remained at the 2004 levels though, and as of yet have not rekindled a cycle of ethno-sectarian type violence," he said.

The document also says "Iran continues to pose a significant challenge to Iraq's long-term stability and political independence." It says "Iran continues to host, train, fund, arm and guide militant groups" that oppose the Iraqi government. But the report says the number of attacks with high-powered roadside bombs provided by Iranian forces declined in recent months, and many leaders of Iraqi groups allied with Iran have been killed, captured or exiled, or have gone into hiding.

The Pentagon report also says the global economic crisis and the fall in the price of oil may affect the Iraqi government's ability to provide funding for defense and economic development. It says the projected Iraqi budget deficit of $20 billion this year may rise.

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Pakistani Taliban Claims Responsibility in Lahore Police Attack

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Pakistani officials said Monday's deadly assault on a police training center outside Lahore was planned by a top Pakistani Taliban commander who is now threatening attacks inside the United States. The Taliban commander has claimed responsibility for the most recent attack in Pakistan and other recent suicide bombings.

Pakistani Taliban commander Baitullah Mehsud (bottom C) speaks to the media at his stronghold in South Waziristan (file photo)

Pakistani officials were quick to name Pakistani Taliban leader Baitullah Mehsud as a prime suspect in the assault that killed eight police cadets and wounded nearly 100 others at the Manawan police training center Monday.

Security forces captured one of the gunmen, who they said was an Afghan from eastern Paktika province. The chief of the Interior Ministry, Rehman Malik, said the captured gunman gave authorities details of the plot.

Malik said the planning of the attack was done under Baitullah Mehsud in the South Waziristan region and all of those involved traveled to Lahore from South Waziristan some 15 days ago.

In a series of phone interviews with news organizations, including VOA, Baitullah Mehsud claimed responsibility for the attack. Reporters said they recognized Mehsud's voice from previous interviews.

A spokesman for a different, and little known group, the Fedayeen al-Islam, also took responsibility for the attack in calls to reporters. Few details are known about that group or its affiliations.

Pakistani police attend the funerals of police killed on Monday's attack in Lahore, Pakistan, 31 Mar 2009

Mehsud said Monday's assault, as well as a suicide bombing on an Islamabad police station last week and a previous bombing in the western town Bannu, were in retaliation for U.S. drone strikes in the tribal regions.

He said the main reason for these attacks is that the drone strikes kill innocent people, particularly women and children. He said more attacks are planned.

In interviews with other news organizations, the militant leader said his group was making no demands on the Pakistani government or the United States. He said militants only want revenge.

U.S. commanders have said the drone strikes against suspected militant targets are an effective strategy to kill top Taliban and al Qaida leaders. The strikes, which often result in civilian casualties, are unpopular in Pakistan, and local officials often publicly denounce them as counterproductive.

Earlier this month, the U.S. government offered up to $5 million for information leading to the location or capture of Mehsud, who leads the largest Pakistani Taliban faction. The United States considers Mehsud a key al Qaida facilitator in Pakistan's tribal areas who has conducted cross-border attacks against U.S. forces in Afghanistan.

He is also suspected in the 2008 bombing of the Marriott Hotel in Islamabad, as well as the assassination of former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto.

Mehsud dismissed the U.S. bounty, saying his capture would make him a martyr. He also threatened to carry out attacks abroad.

He said we will take revenge from Americans, not within Pakistan, but in Washington and the White House.

In Washington, U.S. State Department Spokesman Gordon Duguid said he was unaware of Mehsud's threat. Duguid expressed condolences to families of victims of the police center attack and said the forces responsible are the enemies of peaceful and democratic governments in Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Monday's assault is the second carried out this month in Lahore. Gunmen also attacked Sri Lanka's cricket team on a bus in the downtown area several weeks ago. Officials have worried the violence, which is uncommon in the eastern Pakistan city, is an indication that militant attacks previously confined to the country's northwest, are now threatening the entire country.

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Obama Calls for Strong Message of Unity Ahead of G20 Summit

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U.S. President Barack Obama is on his way to London, to start his first overseas trip as president. Mr. Obama's eight-day visit to Europe may be as ambitious as his domestic agenda.

The president's five-nation journey will include three summits, as well as a number of one-on-one meetings with world leaders, a major speech on arms control and an Internet discussion with young people.

First, Mr. Obama goes to London for a meeting of the world's major economic powers and some emerging economies. The so-called G20 leaders agree that something must be done about the global economic crisis, but they differ on the amount of government stimulus needed. Mr. Obama has campaigned, without much success, to get other G20 countries to spend as aggressively as he has.

"[that] the stimulus efforts of all countries are sufficiently robust to deal with the decline in demand," Mr. Obama said. "We think that is important. Countries like China, for example, are doing that."

The president said recently he will also try to persuade his fellow G-20 leaders to work together to regulate the financial markets.

"We think that it is very important that there is coordination and effort, so that if we are doing some things that are increasing transparency, openness and trust on Wall Street, that London is doing the same thing," Mr. Obama said.

In London, Mr. Obama and the other G20 leaders will be greeted with tea, cake and cookies - not by British officials, but by protesters outside the Bank of England. The demonstrators are calling Wednesday "Financial Fools Day."

Before the G20 leaders meet, Mr. Obama will have his first meeting with Russian President Dimitry Medvedev. U.S. relations with Russia deteriorated during the Bush administration, but Mr. Medvedev wrote in Tuesday's Washington Post that he is optimistic his meeting with Mr. Obama will produce a better relationship.

Mr. Obama will also meet in London with the leaders of China, India, Saudi Arabia and South Korea.

Next, the president goes to the NATO summit on the French-German border. He will try to sell his fellow alliance leaders on the need for more support for the war in Afghanistan. Many European leaders are reluctant to send more troops to Afghanistan.

Mr. Obama will make a major speech on weapons proliferation when he goes to the Czech Republic. In Prague, he will go to the EU summit to discuss American plans for a missile defense system in Europe.

The president will end his trip with a visit to Turkey, the first mostly Muslim country he has visited since taking office.

Mr. Obama is popular in Europe, and new public-opinion polls show he is still well-supported at home. The Washington Post-ABC News survey shows that two-thirds of Americans polled approve of the president's job performance, and 60 percent think he is doing a good job on the economy.

Mr. Obama's wife Michelle is scheduled to make several appearances of her own in Europe, including a visit to a school for low-income girls in London.

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Medvedev Outlines Path to Better US-Russian Ties

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Russian President Dmitri Medvedev (file)

The U.S. and Russia presidents are scheduled to meet for the first time Wednesday on the sidelines of the G20 summit in London. The new Kremlin leader comes to the meeting with a record of policy initiatives that have swung between belligerent threats against the West to offers of cooperation with Washington.

Writing in The Washington Post on the eve of his first meeting with President Barack Obama, President Dmitri Medvedev says there are many possible areas of Russo-American cooperation. He says they include disarmament, Afghanistan and global finance.

But recently, Mr. Medvedev announced a strategic rearmament plan and offered Kyrgyzstan a $2 billion aid package that has complicated the U.S. supply effort in Afghanistan. Russia has also threatened to counter a proposed U.S. missile defense system in Central Europe by stationing its own Iskander missiles, near Poland, and has refused to rule out the sale of ground-to-air missiles to Iran.

Fyodor Lukyanov, chief editor of Russia in Global Affairs, says Moscow's apparent policy swings represent an attempt to strengthen its position in the U.S.-Russia dialogue. Lukyanov says one of the contentious issues on the London agenda is likely to be the proposed American missile defense system in Central Europe. The Bush and Obama administrations have insisted the system is aimed at Iran, but Moscow perceives it as a threat to Russia.

Lukyanov says the Iskander deployment threat was a rhetorical warning, which no one really planned to carry out - all the more so because Central European deployment of the defense system does not appear to be an Obama administration priority for the coming years and will, therefore, lose focus as an issue.

Lukyanov says the question of Ukrainian and Georgian NATO membership - a matter of major concern to Moscow - can be diffused if the Obama administration downgrades priorities accorded to Kyiv and Tbilisi. He says the United States will never recognize a Russian sphere of influence in those countries.

Dmitri Trenin

Dmitri Trenin, the director of the Moscow Carnegie Center, notes that a majority of Ukrainians oppose membership in NATO. But he says many Ukrainians and others in Central Europe consider Russia to be a frequent historic aggressor, which NATO can defend against. Trenin says the Kremlin also creates mistrust in Ukraine, where - as he puts it -Russia is often its own worst enemy.

Trenin says he thinks official and semi-official Russian actions and words that question the stability of Ukraine, its borders, and the existence of the Ukrainian state do not strengthen the position of Russia, and in the final analysis do not lead to development of peaceful, civilized relations between the two countries.

Sergei Rogov

Sergei Rogov, the director of the USA-Canada Institute at the Russian Academy of Sciences, says the prospect of NATO missiles in Ukraine concerns Russia no less than Soviet missiles in Cuba nearly 50 years ago troubled the United States.

Rogov says Iran already has missiles that can reach Russian territory and notes Moscow does not want that country to get nuclear weapons, though he doubts Iran is developing them. He says Russia agrees with the United States on most Iranian issues, but was opposed to the Bush administration's call for economic sanctions against Tehran.

Though he insists Iran's nuclear program is for civilian purposes, Rogov notes the importance of a new U.S.-Russian Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, or START, to prevent nuclear arms proliferation, particularly in Iran and North Korea. The current START treaty - a 700-page document - expires in December.

Rogov expresses concern that President Obama's START team has not been organized, which means the U.S. does not yet have a negotiating position. He cautions that there are big and unprecedented problems in signing a new treaty within six months because of the complicated military and technical matters involved.

In recent months, Russian leaders have denounced what they say is a unipolar world dominated by the United States. Dmitri Trenin says this does not mean that Kremlin leaders have any illusions that Russia can match American military and economic power. Nonetheless, he says Russian leaders felt the Bush administration did not treat them as equals.

"At this time, Russian leaders would like more attention from President Obama and also more understanding of Russia's interests and its role in international affairs," Trenin said.

Russian observers expect the United States to downplay human rights issues.

Fyodor Lukyanov says the reason is the Obama administration has inherited many difficult problems and must take a pragmatic approach toward solving them. The observers say Presidents Obama and Medvedev also appear to be pragmatists who are not likely to develop the close personal ties that characterized relations between Presidents Reagan and Gorbachev or Bush and Putin.

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Clinton Calls for Increased Aid for Afghanistan

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U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton is urging the international community to provide more security and development aid to Afghanistan. Mrs. Clinton spoke at the start of a day-long conference about Afghanistan in The Hague.

US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, left, reacts, during press conference with Dutch Foreign Minister Maxime Verhagen, right, at Afghanistan Conference in The Hague, 31 Mar 2009

Secretary of State Hillary Clinton urged countries not to let their economic troubles at home lead to a drop in support in Afghanistan, warning the growing instability in Afghanistan has international implications.

"The range of countries and institutions represented here is a universal recognition that what happens in Afghanistan matters to us all," she said. "Our failure to bring peace and progress would be a setback, not only to the people in Afghanistan, but to the entire enterprise and collective action in the interest of collective security."

The Obama administration is deploying 17,000 more troops and 4,000 trainers for Afghanistan's army and police. Mrs. Clinton said there should be international trainers for every Afghan army and police unit. She also called for strengthening Afghan security forces to at least 134,000 soldiers and 82,000 police officers by 2011.

She also said former Taliban and al-Qaida members should be integrated back into the community.

The Hague meeting aims to re-energize international efforts to help Afghanistan as violence there has reached its highest level in years.

But Afghan President Hamid Karzai outlined the strides the country has made since the Taliban rule was toppled in 2001.

"A country that seven years ago was isolated, oppressed by a tyrannical regime and violated by international terrorists from far corners of the world is a full-fledged member of the international community and is taking steady steps toward democracy and the rule of law," he said.

Diplomats will be asking Mr. Karzai's government to do more to fight the violence, along with corruption and drug production, and to ensure that Afghan elections in August are free and fair.

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Indian PM to Discuss Taliban with Obama

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Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh is expected to tell President Barack Obama there is no difference between good and bad Taliban when they meet this week on the G20 sidelines.

Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh (file)

India's prime minister will meet U.S. President Barack Obama for the first time at the Group of 20 meeting Thursday in London.

While the global economic crisis is to dominate the official agenda, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and the U.S. President will also discuss South Asian security.

Speaking to reporters in Guwahati in northeast India, External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee said Mr. Singh is eager to discuss the insurgencies along the Afghan-Pakistani border.

Mukherjee is expressing unease with proposals to allow so-called "good" Taliban in a future power-sharing arrangement in Afghanistan to fight al Qaida and other terrorists.

"I am afraid our perception is you cannot make a distinction between good Talibans and bad Talibans," Mukherjee said. "There cannot be any good terrorists or bad terrorists."

The Taliban, who are primarily ethnic Pashtuns, are active in Afghanistan and Pakistan. A U.S.-led military operation in 2001 ousted the Taliban from power in Afghanistan.

The Indian minister added Afghanistan's problems cannot be solved without simultaneously taking care of the challenges faced by it neighbor, Pakistan. Mukherjee pointed to territories under Pakistan's administrative control as the epicenter of global terrorism.

The initial face-to-face meeting between the Indian and U.S. leaders in London this week is viewed as crucial for maintaining the warming ties between New Delhi and Washington.

The Indo-American relationship blossomed during the presidency of George W. Bush. Traditionally the United States maintained a closer relationship with Pakistan than India.

Pakistan and India have fought three wars since independence in 1947. During the Cold War era, India was officially a non-aligned state, but had a deep level of cooperation with the Soviet Union. Russia remains the top supplier of weaponry, aircraft and other equipment to India's military.

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Hundreds of Migrants Feared Drowned Off Libyan Coast

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Italian Coast Guard boat carrying some would-be immigrants, rescued at sea, reaches port of tiny Italian island of Lampedusa, 29 Mar 2009

The International Organization for Migration says it believes more than 300 African migrants, possibly as many as 500, drowned after their boats sank off the coast of Libya. Libyan officials say 21 people are confirmed dead and about 20 others have been rescued.

The International Organization for Migration says, according to its latest information, up to three smugglers boats carrying hundreds of migrants sank off the coast of Libya.

IOM spokesman Jean-Philippe Chauzy says it is quite likely the rickety boats capsized because they were overloaded, top heavy and ran into heavy storm winds.

"The boats are usually overcrowded," Chauzy said. "There is no safety equipment on those boats. No buoys, no dinghies, anything, because the purpose is to cram as many people on those boats as possible, with total disrespect for the safety, the dignity of those people who get on those boats who want to go towards Italy and the island of Lampedusa."

Egyptian authorities report the mishap occurred about 30 kilometers off the Libyan coast. They say some Egyptian nationals were rescued and that the bodies of 10 other Egyptians are among the dead.

Chauzy says most of the migrants aboard the vessels are believed to have come from Sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa. He says Libya is a country of destination for many migrants from these regions.

He says, increasingly, migrants from the Horn of Africa also are arriving in Libya and risking their lives to get to Europe.

"Over the past year, we have assisted more than 3,500 destitute, stranded migrants who were allowed to return home on a voluntary basis and benefited from a reintegration package to help them start new lives in their country of origin, mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa ... Last year, there were over or close to 37,000 people who landed, who arrived on the Italian island of Lampedusa. I think it is fair to say that the majority of those who arrived in Lampedusa left from the Libyan coast," Chauzy said.

The smuggling season normally shuts down in October and resumes again in April. Chauzy says it is not surprising to see the numbers of boats leaving Libya and crossing the Gulf of Aden increasing.

He says the latest tragedy shows the lengths to which desperate people will go to escape a life of misery and poverty.

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Analyst: Spy Agencies Believe North Korea Has Nuclear Warheads

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A well-known international research group says intelligence agencies believe North Korea has developed and deployed nuclear warheads theoretically capable of being placed on missiles. The assessment, to be explained in more detail in a report due out this week, is certain to fuel concerns about the North's planned long-range rocket launch this month.

North Korean soldiers observe South Korean side at border village of Panmunjom (DMZ, 26 mar 2009

Daniel Pinkston, a Seoul-based analyst for the International Crisis Group, says North Korea appears to have made an alarming advance in its nuclear weapons program.

"Information I've obtained seems to indicate that they [North Korea] have assembled nuclear warheads for the Rodong and that there are two storage facilities for them in the Northern part of the country," Pinkston said.

The "Rodong" is a North Korean medium-range missile that can reach all of South Korea and most of Japan. North Korea conducted an underground nuclear weapons test in 2006, but experts have doubted whether the North would be able to produce a nuclear bomb small and light enough to mount on a missile.

In a report due out this week, Pinkston says there is a growing consensus within international intelligence agencies that Pyongyang has already produced several such warheads and might be able to deploy them in short order.

"The assessment is that they probably store the fissile material and the other components separately, so that they wouldn't have a nuclear accident - it wouldn't detonate accidentally. And it would take a day or two - probably two days - to assemble those and get them ready, and to transfer them to the military, transfer them to the missile units for launch," Pinkston said.

The warning is likely to increase even further the level of international concern over North Korea's planned launch of a long-range rocket, early next month. If weather is favorable, liftoff is expected to happen as early as this coming Saturday.

Pyongyang says the rocket will be carrying what it calls a "communications satellite" on a legitimate space research mission. South Korea, the United States, Japan and the European Union says the launch will violate a United Nations resolution imposed after the North's nuclear test.

Pinkston does not specify which nations the information comes from - but Japan, South Korea, and the United States have all warned for years the North seeks to produce nuclear-tipped missiles as soon as it can. He says, even with the best intelligence, there is room for doubt.

"Even if you went directly, and you were given a private tour by Kim Jong Il and his staff, and you were taken to an underground facility and shown what appeared to be a nuclear warhead, it could still be a hoax. So, until you actually see it, there can be no absolute certainty," he said.

Pinkston's summary of international intelligence data is due out this week, in a new report by the International Crisis Group.

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North Korea Says US Journalists Will Face Trial

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Two pending cases in the North Korean justice system are spotlighting Pyongyang's hypersensitivity to outside influence. Pyongyang says it will put two U.S. journalists it is detaining on trial, and is "investigating" a South Korean who worked at a joint North-South industrial complex.

Undated photo show two American journalists Laura Ling (R) and Euna Lee (File)

North Korea announced Tuesday it will put two American reporters on trial for what it calls "suspected hostile acts" that have been "confirmed by evidence and their statements."

Euna Lee and Laura Ling are two female reporters who work for San Francisco-based Current TV, founded in part by former Vice President Al Gore. They were apparently gathering video for a documentary on human rights abuses of North Korean refugees at North Korea's Chinese border earlier this month when Pyongyang says they illegally entered the country.

In an official commentary, the North's official Korean Central News Agency said the women will be allowed "consular contact" and will be treated according to "relevant international law." It is believed they are being detained in the North Korean capital, Pyongyang.

The United States has no formal diplomatic presence in North Korea. However, Washington says it is using diplomatic channels to seek the reporters' release. Sweden is playing a role as a go-between on the issue.

Park Gi Gab is a professor in the college of law at Korea University in Seoul. He says several major legal issues are pertinent to the trial.

He says it must be established whether the women really crossed the Tumen river and entered into North Korean territory or not.

Human rights activists say North Korean officers have been known in the past to cross into China to take prisoners.

Park adds North Korea will be expected to remember it is a signatory to the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and several similar international agreements.

Although human rights groups say the North routinely violates those agreements with its own people, they may bring increased international pressure on Pyongyang to treat the reporters according to due legal process.

In a separate case, North Korea detained an employee of South Korea's Hyundai Asan corporation for a second day Tuesday. North Korean authorities are investigating him for what colleagues say were remarks critical of the North's government.

The man works at a joint industrial facility in the North Korean city of Kaesong, managed and funded by South Korea. Mr. Yoo Chang-Geun, Vice Chairman of the Kaesong Industrial Council, says alcohol may be a factor.

He says the person being detained is known to occasionally get drunk and make "mistakes."

Yoo says at the Kaesong complex, where South Korean workers sometimes spend months in isolation from their families, there is not much else to do but drink at the end of a work day. He says North and South Koreans occasionally share jokes and frank conversation, but generally avoid any talk about the North's political system.

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China Denies Any Role in 'GhostNet' Computer Hacking

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Beijing officials deny any involvement in the electronic spy ring dubbed "GhostNet," which has infiltrated more than 1,000 computers around the world and has been linked to computers in China.

Qin Gang (file)

Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang rejected allegations of a link between the Chinese government and a vast computer spying network. He said in Beijing on Tuesday that the accusation comes from people outside China who, "are bent on fabricating lies of so-called Chinese computer spies."

Qin says outside of China there is a "Cold War Ghost." He says people haunted by this ghost also suffer from a virus called "China threat," which he says makes people want to tarnish China with lies.

News reports this week said Canadian researchers discovered the so-called GhostNet spy network when the Dalai Lama's organization asked them to examine its computers for harmful software.

The Canadian researchers say it is not clear the hacking is government supported. They did conclude that GhostNet's servers are almost exclusively located in China, and its targets are political, including NATO, the Indian Embassy in Washington and Tibetan exile centers in India, Brussels and London.

The Canadian report says there are real consequences to the spying. For example, when the Dalai Lama's organization sent an e-mail invitation to a foreign diplomat, the diplomat was contacted by the Chinese government and told not to go through with the meeting.

When asked if the Chinese government is concerned that computers in the spy ring are in China, Qin said it is more important to track down the people outside of China who were making these accusations.

He says the Dalai Lama and his supporters "always live on lies and twisting facts."

The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of most Tibetans. He has been in exile for 50 years and has long advocated greater autonomy from China for Tibet, an idea that Beijing firmly rejects.

Two researchers at Cambridge University in England released their own report about the Tibet-related activities of the spy ring. They more directly implicate the Chinese government, but also warn that these hacking methods could easily be adopted by criminals and others.

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Australian Government Denies Getting 'Too Cozy' With China

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Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd has defended his government's pursuit of closer ties with China. His comments follow criticism by opposition politicians who have accused Mr. Rudd of being too close to the Chinese.

Australia's Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, 30 Mar 2009

Australia's links to China, its second biggest trading partner, have come under scrutiny after the conservative opposition in Canberra claimed that the relationship had become "far too cozy".

The criticism emerged after it was revealed that two senior Chinese officials, including a Communist Party propaganda chief, recently visited Australia without the public's knowledge.

Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, who is in London for this week's G20 economic summit, ignored a question about the secrecy surrounding the visits. Instead, he said that robust ties with China are important and that Australian jobs depend on them.

Although China's demand for Australian minerals has shrunk because of the global financial crisis, Foreign Minister Stephen Smith says that relations with the Chinese had to remain strong.

"Let's be very clear, very clear, about Australia's relationship with China. It's absolutely essential in the course of this century that Australia have a very strong relationship with China. This is all in Australia's national interest," said Smith.

Australia's opposition leader, Malcolm Turnbull, thinks, however, that the Rudd government has become too close to China. He accuses the prime minister of acting like a "roving ambassador" for Beijing.

Turnbull says he worries that the government's links with the Chinese could result in Australia's natural resources being sold too cheaply.

"Issues of our ... dealings, our relationship - our friendly relationship, I might add - with China are of important national interest," said Turnbull. "We have big questions to debate all the time about foreign investment. There are big issues around at the moment and our dealings with China, as indeed with other major powers, are matters of intense public interest."

Australian Defense Minister Joel Fitzgibbon has been drawn into the dispute after he admitted that he did not declare two trips to China when he was an opposition lawmaker in 2002 and 2005. An Australian-Chinese businesswoman paid for the trips.

Last week, Treasury officials in Canberra blocked a $1.8 billion takeover bid of Australian company at OZ Minerals by the Chinese company Minmetals because of national security concerns. The deal would have included a gold and copper mine near a sensitive missile facility in the Australian desert.

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ADB Predicts Sluggish Growth for Developing Asia

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A new report predicts developing Asia's economic growth will slow by almost half this year, but the Asian Development Bank forecasts that the region will rebound in 2010.

Developing Asian economies are likely to grow by an average of 3.4 percent in 2009, a steep drop from last year's growth of 6.3 percent. The Asian Development Bank on Tuesday issued the revised outlook for the region, just a few months after it predicted average growth of more than five percent.

Jong-Wha Lee is the ADB's acting chief economist. He says this year the region's economies will grow at the most sluggish pace since the Asian financial crisis a decade ago. But, he says, now developing Asia is in a much better position to cope with tough times.

Lee says large foreign currency reserves and steadily declining inflation rates help the region be more resilient. But, he says, Asia's current account surpluses have contributed to the world's economic woes.

"So it's Asia's excess savings and the current account surpluses in a way helped allow the United States to maintain excessive household consumption and huge current account deficits," he said.

Lee says Asia should use its own savings more efficiently and productively, rather than sending the surplus to U.S. markets. The large foreign currency reserves provide Asian governments with funds to boost their flagging economies.

Government stimulus measures are expected to help China's economy grow by seven percent this year, although that is well below the 10 percent growth seen in recent years. India's economy is expected to grow at five percent in 2009, also well down from the past few years.

The ADB, a non-profit development lender, says Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan are likely to contract this year, as demand for exports dwindles.

Southeast Asia is expected to grow by less than one percent in 2009. The drop in exports particularly will hurt Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand.

Central Asia may grow by about four percent in 2009 as oil prices remain more than 60 percent below last year's peak.

Lee says it is important for Asian countries to strengthen and increase domestic demand, in response to weakening external demand. "This is not really only for the short-term measures to help the Asian countries coming out of this current economic slowdown," said Lee, "but also it helps Asian countries build up its own strengths to make them more resilient to large, external shocks."

Lee says the short-term outlook is bleak as severe recession in industrialized economies hurts developing nations. But, if the global economy recovers slightly next year, developing Asia should see average growth of six percent in 2010.

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Ancient Footprints Let Experts Step Back in Time

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Also: A study finds that being hopeful about future events might help you stay healthy and live longer. And a mysterious sickness is reducing bat populations in the northeastern U.S. Transcript of radio broadcast:

VOICE ONE:

This is SCIENCE IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English. I'm Barbara Klein.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Bob Doughty. This week, we will tell about evidence of early human ancestors. We also will tell about the health effects of hopeful feelings. And, we will tell about disappearing bat populations in the northeastern United States.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Christine Galvagna, part of a Rutgers team, cleans a trail of hominid footprints

An international research team has discovered markings made by the ancestors of modern human beings more than one million years ago. The discovery is exciting because it shows the shape of the feet and walking method of the human ancestors.

Rutgers University Professor Jack Harris led the researchers and students who uncovered the marks during three years of digging. They found the ancient footprints near the village of Ileret in northern Kenya. A report about their findings was published last month in Science magazine.

VOICE TWO:

Early humans made the footprints as they walked on volcanic ash and soil that turned to rock over time. The team found two sets of prints in separate levels of rock that are about one million five hundred thousand years old.

The scientists say the prints were left by one of two human ancestors: either Homo erectus or Homo ergaster. However, many experts do not recognize a difference between the two. Homo erectus is the more commonly used name.

VOICE ONE:

A hominid footprint found in Kenya and dated as 1.5 million years old

Surprisingly, the footprints look much like those you would find on a sandy coastline today. In their report, the team said the discovery provides the oldest evidence of a foot structure that is generally the same as a modern human's.

The prints show how the big toe of Homo erectus is close to the other toes. In earlier species, the big toe is separated widely from the other toes -- as in the foot structure of apes. No Homo erectus foot bones have ever been found. This makes the well-preserved footprints especially valuable.

VOICE TWO:

Scientists have also learned how Homo erectus walked from the prints. Researcher Matthew Bennett of Bournemouth University used laser technology to make digital images of the footprints. These images suggest that Homo erectus walked by touching the ground first with the back of the foot and pushing off with the front -- just as we do.

The researchers could even estimate the height of the ancient individuals. One was only about a meter tall. It is believed to have been a child. The others were about the average height of modern human adults.

VOICE ONE:

The findings provide more evidence that human ancestors were able to travel long distances. Homo erectus may have left Africa for other parts of the world as early as one million eight hundred years ago.

This is only the second time that early human footprints have been found. In nineteen seventy-eight, British anthropologist Mary Leaky discovered the prints of a possible human ancestor at Laetoli, Tanzania. They belonged to Australopithicus afarensis, a much earlier and smaller human-like creature that walked on two feet.

VOICE TWO:

Professor Harris says his team not only found footprints, but also many animal tracks in the rock. These include markings of hoofed animals that Homo erectus may have hunted for food. Other tracks belonged to meat-eaters. Such creatures were competitors or even threats to the early humans.

The footprints found in Kenya have let scientists step back in time to find new details about our distant ancestors and their environment.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

An American study has shown that being hopeful about future events might help you stay healthy and live longer. The study found links between people's beliefs and their risks of cancer-related death, heart disease and early death.

Researchers studied one hundred thousand women during an eight-year period, beginning in nineteen ninety-four. All of the women were fifty years of age or older. The study was part of the Women's Health Initiative, a continuing study organized by the National Institutes of Health. The findings were presented earlier this month at a meeting of the American Psychosomatic Society.

VOICE TWO:

For the study, the women were asked questions that measured their beliefs or ideas about the future. The researchers attempted to identify each woman's personality eight years after gathering the information.

The study found that the hopeful individuals were fourteen percent less likely than other women to have died from any cause. The hopeful women were also thirty percent less likely to have died from heart disease after the eight years.

VOICE ONE:

Hilary Trindle was the lead writer of the report. She is an assistant professor of medicine at the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania. She says the study confirms earlier research that also linked optimistic feelings to longer life. However, this study is different from earlier research on the subject.

The researchers also gathered information about people's education, financial earnings, physical activity and use of alcoholic drinks or cigarettes. Independent of those things, the findings still showed that optimists had less of a chance of dying during the eight-year period.

VOICE TWO:

Some women who answered the study's questions were found to be cynically hostile, or highly untrusting of others. These women were sixteen percent more likely to die than the others. They also were twenty-three percent more likely to die of cancer.

The study also found that women who were not optimistic were more likely to smoke, have high blood pressure or diabetes. They were also more likely not to exercise.

Professor Tindle says the study did not confirm whether optimism leads to healthier choices, or if it actually affected a person's physical health. She says the study does not prove that negative emotions or distrust lead to bad health effects, and shorter life. Yet there does appear to be a link between the two. More research is needed to discover the exact reasons for the findings.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

In recent years, biologists have observed a sharp drop in bat populations in the northeastern United States. The biologists believe the drop has resulted from a mysterious sickness called white nose syndrome.

A dead Indiana bat found in Rosendale, New York, earlier this year. White nose syndrome is killing more bats over a larger area of the U.S. this year.

Little is known about the sickness. It is called white nose syndrome because of a white-colored fungus found on the faces of affected bats. The fungus seems to grow in cold weather. The affected animals were first observed in two thousand seven in New York State.

Scientists believe the disease causes bats to awaken early from their hibernation or yearly rest period. The scientists say the bats then leave their resting places in search of food during the winter when the insects they eat are not available. Without a food supply, the bats starve to death.

VOICE TWO:

Wildlife officials say white nose syndrome is not a direct threat to other animals or human beings. However, the bats' continuing disappearance could have a far-reaching effect on the environment.

Bats have survived for about fifty million years. They eat large amounts of insects, up to twenty-five percent of their body weight in one night's feeding. If fewer bats are available to eat the insects, farmers will have to use more insect-killing chemical products to protect their crops. Diseases that are spread by insects could also become more common.

VOICE ONE:

Cases of white nose syndrome have been confirmed in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Vermont, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. It is difficult for scientists to know the exact number of bats that have died as a result of white nose syndrome. However, some estimate that hundreds of thousands of bats have already disappeared.

The United States Geological Survey says the disease has affected six bat species. They include little brown bats, northern bats, tricolored bats, Indiana bats, small-footed myotis and big brown bats.

Biologists are currently studying possible ways to keep the disease from spreading. Tests are needed to guarantee a plan that will be effective.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

This SCIENCE IN THE NEWS program was written by Mario Ritter and Brianna Blake, who was also our producer. I'm Bob Doughty.

VOICE ONE:

And I'm Barbara Klein. Read and listen to our programs at voaspecialenglish.com. Join us again next week for more news about science in Special English on the Voice of America.

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A Vegetable Garden Grows at the White House

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The organic garden will show the value of good food and nutrition. Transcript of radio broadcast:

This is the VOA Special English Agriculture Report.

Earlier this month, Michelle Obama and twenty-three schoolchildren helped prepare the ground for an organic vegetable garden on the South Lawn of the White House. The first lady showed the young gardeners how to turn the soil for the one hundred square meter garden.

First lady Michelle Obama breaks ground for the White House Kitchen Garden with the help of local students

The students from nearby Bancroft Elementary School will help grow fifty-five kinds of vegetables, herbs and berries. They will plant organic seedlings in a few weeks. The White House will provide organic fertilizer for the garden. Crops will include lettuce, spinach, broccoli, peas, onions and berries. Missus Obama said two beehives will provide honey. The whole Obama family, including the president, will pull weeds in the garden. The total cost of the seedlings and fertilizer is two hundred dollars.

The vegetables and fruit will help provide meals for the Obama family, White House workers and guests. The produce will also go to a nearby center that provides food for homeless people. Michelle Obama said the main goal of the garden is to educate children and influence communities to choose and prepare healthful food.

The garden will be the first on the White House lawn since World War Two. President Franklin Roosevelt's wife Eleanor planted what was called a "Victory Garden" as part of the war effort in nineteen forty-three.

Eleanor Roosevelt urged all Americans to grow their own vegetables and fruits. Much of the nation's farm produce at the time was feeding American soldiers. More recently, President and Missus Clinton had a small garden. But it was planted in containers on the roof of the White House.

The White House garden marks a victory for people like Professor Michael Pollan of the University of California, Berkeley. The writer and food expert has worked to increase public education about good food. He said gardens like the one at the White House help people reconnect with food and eat more healthfully.

In a public letter to Mister Obama several months ago, Michael Pollan said a White House garden would set a revolutionary example of healthful eating and local farming for the whole country.

And that's the VOA Special English Agriculture Report, written by Jerilyn Watson. You can learn more about growing food at our Web site, voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Steve Ember.

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Follow the Santa Fe Trail to Oldest US Capital City

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Santa Fe, New Mexico, is preparing to celebrate its 400th anniversary. Transcript of radio broadcast:

VOICE ONE:

Welcome to THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English. I'm Barbara Klein.

VOICE TWO:

A modern sign marks the Santa Fe Trail. Behind, an example of adobe architecture.

And I'm Steve Ember. This week on our program, we take you to a city in the American Southwest: Santa Fe, New Mexico.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

We begin at the Santa Fe Trail, or what remains of it. The ground still shows the path cut deep into the earth by the wheels of thousands of wagons. The Santa Fe Trail began in the state of Missouri, the nineteenth century gateway to the wild and largely unexplored West. The trail ended about one thousand two hundred kilometers away, in Santa Fe.

Wagons traveled the Santa Fe Trail from eighteen twenty-two until a railroad replaced it in eighteen seventy-nine. No one kept a total. But records from eighteen fifty-eight show that as many as one thousand eight hundred wagons made the trip that year.

VOICE TWO:

Wagon wheels left their mark on the Santa Fe Trail

The Santa Fe Trail was an important international trade route. It carried goods south into Mexico and north into the United States. But traders were not the only ones who traveled it.

Settlers, government officials, hunters, gold seekers, soldiers and American Indians all used the trail. So did storekeepers, hotel workers, lawyers, blacksmiths -- all the people needed to expand the young nation. They found places to live and work along the trail.

The National Park Service says that in eighteen twenty-two, trade along the Santa Fe Trail totaled fifteen thousand dollars. By eighteen sixty, it was more than three million. Today that would be worth fifty-three million dollars.

VOICE ONE:

The Santa Fe Trail dates back to eighteen twenty-one. A businessman named William Becknell believed he could earn a lot of money by moving trade goods from Missouri to Santa Fe. He was right.

He began his first trip in September of eighteen twenty-one. He carried his goods on the backs on mules. He reached the center of Santa Fe in November. The next year he used wagons so he could carry more goods to sell.

Eighteen twenty-one was also an important year in the history of Mexico. That was the year Mexicans got their independence after years of revolt against Spanish rule. Spain had protected Mexico's borders with laws barring trade with the United States. With the coming of Mexican independence, the Santa Fe Trail became the major trade link between the two countries.

VOICE TWO:

American Indians have lived in the Southwest for thousands of years. The area surrounding the Santa Fe Trail included the hunting grounds of the Cheyenne, the Kiowa, the Comanche, the Arapaho and the Apache. It was also the homeland of the Osage, the Kaw, the Ute and the Pueblo Indians.

Early relations between the Indians and the settlers moving West were mostly peaceful. But misunderstandings and conflicting values led to violence as more people came. Mexican and American troops rode with the wagons to provide protection.

VOICE ONE:

Wagon trains -- groups of wagons -- rode in four lines across the land when they passed through dangerous country. If attacked, the wagons could quickly form a circle for defense.

An average wagon train included twenty-five to thirty-five wagons pulled by oxen. They traveled about twenty-four kilometers a day. The trip in each direction could take fifty days or more.

Mules were faster. For example, in eighteen fifty-seven a stagecoach pulled by six mules took twenty to twenty-five days to travel from Independence, Missouri, to Santa Fe. The distance was one thousand two hundred kilometers. Later, a stagecoach could make the trip in thirteen to fourteen days by moving day and night and changing animals often.

Whichever kind of animal pulled the wagons, moving along the Santa Fe Trail was generally unexciting. Travelers mostly had to deal with mud, dust, insects and heat. But there was the danger not just of attacks but also floods, fires, winds and storms.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

One result of the continued expansion of United States territory was the Mexican-American war. It began in eighteen forty-six. A force known as the Army of the West used the Santa Fe Trail to protect American traders. It also used the trail to take control of an area that is now New Mexico and part of California.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American war in eighteen forty-eight. It gave the United States nearly all of what is today the states of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico.

The government built a series of bases in the New Mexico territory to protect the settlers and goods moving along the Santa Fe Trail. The largest was Fort Union, about one hundred twenty kilometers from Santa Fe.

VOICE ONE:

The area of the Santa Fe Trail around Fort Union was also involved in the American Civil War. By eighteen-sixty-two, the trail was the main supply line for Union forces in the Southwest.

Confederate forces moved into New Mexico from Texas. They wanted to seize the territory and Fort Union in an effort to find paths to the Pacific Ocean and to the gold fields of Colorado. But they never reached the fort.

Union forces defeated them on the Santa Fe Trail at Glorietta Pass in New Mexico. The battle secured control of the supply line for Union forces. It also ended Civil War activity in the Southwest.

One of the ruins at Fort Union

VOICE TWO:

Today, Fort Union is preserved by the National Park Service as an outdoor museum on the Santa Fe Trail. Visitors can explore the ruins of the buildings and the ruts made by wagons. And they can follow the path of the trail over a modern highway. A stone marker shows the spot where the Santa Fe Trail ended in the city's historic central plaza.

New Mexico became the forty-seventh state in January of nineteen twelve. But Santa Fe has a longer history of serving as a capital city than any of the other capitals of the fifty states.

VOICE ONE:

Santa Fe was the capital of the Spanish kingdom of New Mexico beginning in sixteen ten. It was the capital of the province of Nuevo Mexico when Mexico became independent. And it was the capital of the New Mexico territory before the territory became a state.

The seat of government in Santa Fe for the Spanish, the Mexicans and the American territory was a building called the Palace of the Governors.

Indians selling handmade goods in front of the Palace of the Governors

The Palace of the Governors on the central plaza is the oldest continually occupied public building in the country. Today it houses the state history museum. Local Indians sell jewelry and other handmade goods along the front of the building.

Most of the buildings in Santa Fe are low and earth colored, a mixture of Spanish and native styles. These buildings are made of adobe brick. Abode is sun-dried earth and straw.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

Santa Fe means "Holy Faith" in Spanish. All around is mountains and desert. The city is more than two thousand meters above sea level, near the southern Rocky Mountains in northern New Mexico. Magazines in recent years have listed Santa Fe among the best places to live in the United States.

Santa Fe is known especially for art. More than two hundred fifty galleries and dealers make it one of the largest art markets in the country. In two thousand five Santa Fe was named a UNESCO Creative City -- the first American city to get that honor.

City officials estimate the population at seventy thousand. The United States Census Bureau says two percent are American Indian and about half are Hispanic or Latino.

The two biggest employers in the area are government and the hotel and food service industry.

VOICE ONE:

Each year more than one million people visit Santa Fe. But, like many places affected by the recession, the numbers were down in two thousand eight. A city report says economic activity last year totaled almost three billion dollars, a four percent decrease from two thousand seven.

The report says spending remains flat or in decline in the local economy. A spokesman for the Convention and Visitors Bureau, Steve Lewis, says economic activity last month was down five percent from February of last year. He says hotels have been reporting cancellations, which is rare for Santa Fe.

VOICE TWO:

Santa Fe is preparing to celebrate its four hundredth anniversary. Sixteen ten was when it became the capital of Spanish New Mexico. Activities will start this September over the Labor Day holiday weekend. Three nights of concerts are planned. Leaders from Spain, Mexico and the United States have been invited, along with American Indian leaders.

The celebration will continue through two thousand ten. Organizers say they need all that time to include all that needs to be remembered about the history of Santa Fe.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Our program was written by Nancy Steinbach and produced by Caty Weaver. I'm Barbara Klein.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Steve Ember. Be sure to join us again next week for THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English.

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Service Organizations Help Prevent Loss of Eyesight in India

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Rotary Clubs help provide eye care to poor people living far from cities and others in need of treatment. Transcript of radio broadcast:

This is the VOA Special English Development Report.

Almost forty years ago, a community service organization started providing eye care in Gujarat State, in western India.

The Rotary Club of Navsari operates an eye hospital and nine area eye centers in and around the Navsari District. Rotary says its services are for the poorest people. The group opened the hospital, the Rotary Eye Institute of Navsari, in nineteen seventy. Institute officials say India has only about one ophthalmologist for every one hundred twenty thousand people. The Institute, however, has ten such specially trained eye doctors.

The Rotary Eye Institute of Navsari has restored or improved the eyesight of thousands of patients. Many people with eye problems cannot easily get to a big city for examinations and treatment. They live in villages far away and have no transportation.

The Rotary Eye Institute established eye centers called camps in places far from the city. Teams from the institute travel as far as one hundred fifty kilometers to see patients. People go to their nearest camp, where medical workers examine their eyes. The workers look for conditions including glaucoma, night blindness and other problems.

Some people are found to have cataracts, abnormal growths on the eye that can lead to loss of eyesight. Hospital officials say India has about thirteen million people with the condition. Cataract patients get free operations to correct the problem. Doctors also examine them for other medical conditions. Rotary groups also operate eye banks.

Doctors at these centers replace damaged eyes with the healthy eyes of donors who have just died. One such center is the Rotary Rajan Eye Bank. It operates in cooperation with the Rajan Eye Care Hospital in Chennai. The Eye Bank opened in nineteen ninety-six. Hundreds of patients have received new corneas from donors since then. The cornea is the clear front part of the eye that transmits light.

Hospital officials say two million people in India are blind because of problems of the cornea. The Rotary Rajan Eye Bank holds continuing eye donation campaigns. It urges people to leave the gift of sight to others when they die.

And that’s the VOA Special English Development Report, written by Jerilyn Watson. Transcripts, MP3s and podcasts of our programs are at voaspecialenglish.com.

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British PM Points to Coordinated Progress Before Economic Summit

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Back from his globe-trotting trip to lay the groundwork for what he calls a new economic order, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown met with his Australian counterpart Kevin Rudd at Ten Downing Street Monday. Mr. Brown said world leaders are making good progress on developing coordinated action to be unveiled Thursday at a key summit in London.

Despite differences over further fiscal stimulus among some European countries attending the summit later this week, Prime Minister Gordon Brown says in his view, the world is coming together to fight this deep, worldwide recession collectively.

"We are seeing an unprecedented global response to an unprecedented global crisis," he said.

Britain's PM Gordon Brown, right, and Australian PM Kevin Rudd, during a meeting at 10 Downing Street London, 30 Mar 2009

Mr. Brown has just returned from a whistle-stop tour of France, the United States and South America to drum up support for unified economic action. He says that since the Washington summit in mid-November, much work has been done.

"Every major economy has taken action to stimulate growth. There have been coordinated cuts in interest rates," he continued. "There have been cuts in taxes. There have been increases in spending and new ways of injecting resources into the economy."

And he pointed to the issue of trying to develop agreed standards of reform in the global financial world where progress has been made, but where much more work is required.

"Action has also been taken in Britain, America and Australia, and many other countries to tighten financial regulation and we are bringing regulatory structures into line with the reality of global 21st century financial markets," said Mr. Brown.

With the world's major economies forecast to shrink this year for the first time since World War Two, Britain's Financial Times newspaper reports the G20 participants will likely resolve to strive for economic growth in 2010.

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