'On the Origin of Species' Celebrated and Debated 150 Years Later

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Charles Darwin's explanation of evolution through natural selection helped establish modern biology and changed how humans saw themselves. Transcript of radio broadcast:

VOICE ONE:

This is SCIENCE IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English. I'm Bob Doughty.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Doug Johnson. November twenty-fourth marked the one hundred fiftieth anniversary of one of the most influential books ever written. Naturalist Charles Darwin published "On the Origin of Species" in eighteen fifty-nine. The book was an immediate success in the scientific community. Today, evolution forms the basis for the modern science of biology.

(MUSIC)

Charles Darwin

VOICE ONE:

Evolution can be defined as change in groups of living things over time. Small changes take place in each generation of organisms. Those with useful changes survive to reproduce. Changes that do not aid survival disappear. This is the idea of natural selection. Over long periods of time, these small changes result in the creation of new species. They are the reason for the many different kinds of life on Earth.

The idea that species change was not new even in Darwin's time. The idea dates back to ancient Greece. In the late eighteenth century, Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, suggested that species evolved from their ancestors. He even thought that competition helped drive change.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Jean-Baptiste Lamark attempted a fuller explanation. He suggested that individual organisms changed in reaction to their environment and passed on these traits to the next generation.

VOICE TWO:

Darwin had been working on his theory for over twenty years when he published "On the Origin of Species." Yet it was the work of naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace that pushed Darwin to finally release his theory. Wallace had studied plants and animals in South America and the South Pacific. In eighteen fifty-eight, he sent Darwin a short study he had written containing ideas about evolution. Darwin was shocked by its similarity to his own work.

In July of that year, Darwin's friends Charles Lyell and Joseph Hooker had studies by both men presented to the scientific group called the Linnean Society of London. But the first explanation of evolution in public caused little reaction.

A year later, Darwin would complete his detailed study of evolution through natural selection. With its publication, Darwin gained important supporters like Thomas Huxley who were willing to defend his ideas.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Evolution, however, did not explain everything about how species evolved. It is important to remember that many of the greatest biological discoveries had yet to be made when Darwin published "On the Origin of Species."

WARREN SCHMAUS: "When Darwin first proposed his theory in eighteen fifty-nine, he had no concept of a gene, no concept of a chromosome, no concept of mutation, and certainly no concept of things like DNA and RNA."

Professor Warren Schmaus of the Illinois Institute of Technology says the union of evolution and genetics only started around the nineteen thirties. Also, in Darwin's time, the age of the Earth was estimated only in the millions of years—too short a time some said for evolution to work. Not until the nineteen fifties did scientists, using radioactive dating, place the age of the Earth at over four billion years.

But natural selection has stood the test of time as a basis for the science of biology. Professor Schmaus notes that, before Darwin, naturalists only collected and named species.

WARREN SCHMAUS: "I mean it's hard to even understand how biology was a science as we would recognize it today. I mean, where are the scientific explanations before Darwin?"

VOICE TWO:

To celebrate Darwin and his idea, the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History in Washington created a special exhibit. "Since Darwin: The Evolution of Evolution" opened in September. It uses objects from the museum's collection to show how Darwin helped us understand the history of life on Earth. The goal is to show that evolution is not an old, accepted idea, but continues to be the basis for new discoveries, itself changing with modern science.

People from all over the world have visited the exhibit. Many people found the objects and displays helped explain a subject that is hard to understand.

VOICE ONE:

Jim and Irene Mikkelson were visiting Washington from Charlotte, North Carolina when they stopped by the museum. Mister Mikkelson called the exhibit educational.

JIM MIKKELSON: "I never really realized that that meant that every living thing really came as an evolutionary development of the first seeds of life."

VOICE TWO:

Aravinda Pillalamarri lives in both India and the United States. She brought her daughter Khiyali to the exhibit and was surprised to find how much she already knew.

ARAVINDA PILLALAMARRI: "What I find interesting is how much of evolution she really takes for granted. For her the idea that birds have come from dinosaurs is just common knowledge and there's nothing surprising in that at all."

VOICE ONE:

Keith Leonard attends George Mason University in northern Virginia. He visited the exhibit to research Darwin's big idea.

KEITH LEONARD: "It's based on scientific observation which I think is important. And sort of the same ideas have been confirmed over and over again. I think trying to understand our world is a really complicated endeavor and it's important to have a sort of solid rational approach like science does."

VOICE TWO:

Most visitors spent a long time looking at the display called "The Tree of Life." Darwin explained the evolutionary process as the branching of a tree with complex species developing from simpler ones.

John Kress, a botanist and curator with the Smithsonian, says the team that created the exhibit had a different idea. He says the display was designed to look like a map of the local Washington Metro train system instead of a tree. The reason? All life is connected. Now we know that genetics makes this connection even deeper and we are linked to our ancestors by DNA.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Evolution is a theory, a word that is often used to describe an educated guess. But it is a scientific theory based on repeated observations, experiments, measurements and discoveries. A scientific theory represents the best explanation of how the natural world works.

There is almost no disagreement over the main ideas of evolution in the scientific community. But the idea that species have evolved from simpler forms is less accepted by the public. A Gallup Poll opinion study taken last February found that twenty-five percent of Americans reject evolution. Thirty-nine percent accept it and the rest have no opinion.

VOICE TWO:

Many important American court cases have dealt with evolution. The most famous took place in Tennessee in nineteen twenty-five. The trial found high school teacher John Scopes guilty of violating a state law banning the teaching of evolution. Later cases ruled that teaching religious creation stories in public schools violates the First Amendment of the Constitution that calls for separation of church and state.

More recently, religious groups have supported the idea of intelligent design in public schools. This is the idea that an intelligent force created all forms of life. In two thousand five, a group of high school students brought legal action against a Pennsylvania school district. Dover area schools had required that intelligent design be taught along with evolution. A United States District Court said intelligent design was not science and could not be separated from religious belief.

VOICE ONE:

But there have also been efforts to bridge the differences between religious belief and evolutionary science in recent years. Francis Collins, the director of the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, has attempted to do that. He is a geneticist who led the effort to map all the human genetic material, DNA.

Francis Collins started an organization called the BioLogos Foundation. It is meant to support the idea that traditional Christian beliefs can coexist with science and evolution. In two thousand six, his book, "The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief," became a national best-seller.

Hummingbirds and this flower, Heliconia bihai, provide an example of coevolution

VOICE TWO:

One hundred fifty years after "On the Origin of Species" first appeared, it remains one of the most influential and debated books ever written. But it is only a beginning. John Kress of the Smithsonian says that, while science accepts evolution, debate continues.

JOHN KRESS: "We do have debates among ourselves over the exact process. And I think this is what science is about. We continually test our ideas; we continually conduct experiments to see if we can gain new insights into how life evolved and that's what really science is all about."

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

This SCIENCE IN THE NEWS was written and produced by Mario Ritter. I'm Bob Doughty.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Doug Johnson. Visit our Web site at voaspecialenglish.com to find a link to the works of Charles Darwin. And join us again next week for more news about science in Special English on the Voice of America.

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Making Better Concrete With Rice?

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The developers of a new process for using rice hulls in cement see environmental and other benefits. Transcript of a radio broadcast:/


This is the VOA Special English Agriculture Report.

Rice hulls, or husks, are the protective coverings on grains of rice. Rice with just its hull removed is brown rice. Rice without its hull or bran is white rice.

Once rice is harvested, the hulls are out of a job. They may be taken to landfills or burned. Sometimes they are used to absorb waste in chicken houses. Other times they are used to amend soil.

But a chemist in Texas has another idea.

Rajan Vempati led a group that developed a new process to make rice hulls into ash. The idea is to replace some of the portland cement traditionally used in making concrete. Portland cement is a material that holds together the sand and crushed stone in concrete.

Rajan Vempati thinks rice hull ash could help the concrete industry produce less carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is released in cement manufacturing when fuel is burned and limestone is heated. The Portland Cement Association says the gas from the limestone is reabsorbed as concrete ages.

But cement manufacturing produces around five percent of the carbon dioxide released by human activity worldwide. Carbon dioxide is one of the gases that may affect the climate by trapping heat.

The process for making rice hull ash heats the hulls to eight hundred degrees centigrade. Carbon is driven out, and fine particles of almost pure silica remain. The process releases some carbon dioxide, but Rajan Vempati says it would be reabsorbed into the soil naturally.

Another inventor, Prasad Rangaraju, is an engineer at Clemson University in South Carolina. He tested the cement, and says less could be used because the rice hull ash makes it a stronger building material. Also, the inventors say the light-colored material better reflects sunlight, so buildings would cost less to cool.

The National Ready Mixed Concrete Association points out that using ash in cement is not a new idea. The ancient Romans discovered that volcanic ash made better cement.

But the modern inventors say rice hull ash works better than other materials. They developed the process with money from the National Science Foundation. They have not yet brought it to market.

Rice hull ash is already available, but the product is relatively costly.

Cost, including transportation, may decide the success of the new technology. Using it could make the most sense in areas where farmers grow lots of rice and the hulls might just go to waste.

And that's the VOA Special English Agriculture Report, written by Jerilyn Watson with Steve Baragona. I'm Bob Doughty.

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Kennedy Center to Honor Five in the Arts

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This year's honorees are Mel Brooks, Dave Brubeck, Grace Bumbry, Robert De Niro and Bruce Springsteen. Transcript of radio broadcast:

VOICE ONE:

Welcome to THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English. I'm Steve Ember.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Barbara Klein. Each year, the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington honors performers for their lifetime of work. This year the Kennedy Center will honor Mel Brooks, Dave Brubeck, Grace Bumbry, Robert De Niro and Bruce Springsteen.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Grace Bumbry

Opera singer Grace Bumbry earned starring roles as a soprano and mezzo-soprano in some of the world's most famous opera houses. Her warm voice and wide range brought roles including Carmen, Salome, Aida, Tosca, Medea and Bess.

She was born in nineteen thirty-seven in Saint Louis, Missouri. At seventeen, she won her first big competition. The prize was a scholarship to a local music school.

But the school would not let her attend classes with other students because she was African-American. The school offered her private lessons instead. Her parents refused.

Grace Bumbry went on to study music at Boston University and Northwestern University. She also studied at the Music Academy of the West in Santa Barbara, California.

In nineteen sixty, at the age of twenty-three, she made her international debut at the Paris Opera. She appeared as Amneris in Verdi's "Aida." Her performance is said to have made her an instant star.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

In nineteen sixty-one, Grace Bumbry became the first black singer ever to perform at the Bayreuth Festival in Germany. Again, some people objected because of her race. In the end, her performance as Venus was a great success.

The seventy-two year old singer is retired now from opera. But she continues to sing in concert and teaches students around the world.

ROBERT DE NIRO IN RAGING BULL:

Robert De Niro

"Some people aren't that lucky. Like the one that Marlon Brando played in, 'On The Waterfront.' An up-and-comer who's now a down- and-outer. Do you remember that scene in the back of the car with his brother Charlie a small time racket guy? And it went something like this…

It wasn't him Charlie, it was you. You remember that night at the Garden. You came down in my dressing room and you said, 'Kid, this ain't your night.' We're going for the price on Wilson?' 'Remember that? 'This ain't your night?' My night. I could've taken Wilson apart that night. So what happens? He gets a title shot outdoors in the ballpark, and what do I get, a one-way ticket to Palookaville. I was never no good after that night, Charley. It was like a peak you reach, and then it's downhill."

VOICE ONE:

Robert De Niro won an Academy Award for best actor for the nineteen eighty movie "Raging Bull." He played boxing champion Jake La Motta. The movie is a good example of how far the actor will go to perfect a role. To prepare for "Raging Bull" he gained twenty-seven kilos and became a boxer.

He also won an Oscar for best supporting actor. He played the young Vito Corleone in the second "Godfather" movie in nineteen seventy-four.

Robert De Niro has appeared in more than seventy films. He has also produced and directed several movies, including "Everybody's Fine," released this year. He was born in New York City in nineteen forty-three.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

Mel Brooks

Mel Brooks is a comedian, actor, writer, producer, director and composer. He has a long list of credits from television, film and stage. In fact, he is one of only a few entertainers ever to have won an Oscar, an Emmy, a Grammy and a Tony award.

Mel Brooks began doing live comedy acts in the early nineteen fifties. He later wrote for TV comedy shows before making his mark on the Hollywood film industry. His awards include a best writing Oscar for the nineteen sixty-eight movie "The Producers."

Other notable early films included "Blazing Saddles" and "Young Frankenstein," both from nineteen seventy-four.

(SOUND FROM "YOUNG FRANKENSTEIN")

VOICE ONE:

The American Film Institute has a list of the one hundred funniest movies. "Young Frankenstein," "Blazing Saddles" and "The Producers" are all listed among the top twenty. In recent years a musical play based on "The Producers" became a big hit.

Mel Brooks was born in nineteen twenty-six in Brooklyn, New York. He is known for his sometimes shocking humor that makes fun of people and situations.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

Dave Brubeck

The Library of Congress calls jazz pianist and composer Dave Brubeck a living legend.

The nineteen fifty-nine album "Time Out" by the Dave Brubeck Quartet was the first jazz album to sell more than one million copies. It includes the well known "Take Five," written by Paul Desmond.

Dave Brubeck was born in Concord, California, in nineteen twenty. He began piano lessons at the age of four. By fourteen he was performing in local bands.

During World War Two, Dave Brubeck, who is white, formed one of the first racially mixed bands in the Army. After leaving the Army he studied with the French composer Darius Milhaud.

Dave Brubeck formed his first quartet in nineteen fifty-one. The group's unusual mix of jazz and classical styles earned praise around the world. Since then Dave Brubeck has had many different quartets and produced many different works, including two ballets and a musical.

His best known jazz works include "In Your Own Sweet Way," "The Duke" and "Blue Rondo a La Turk."

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Bruce Springsteen

Bruce Springsteen has sold more than one hundred twenty million albums. Most of his songs tell stories about American life. Many are about his life growing up in the state of New Jersey, where he was born in nineteen forty-nine.

His first song to enjoy widespread success was "Born to Run." It was the title song from his nineteen seventy-five album.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has a list of the five hundred songs that shaped rock and roll. "Born to Run" is number twenty-one on the list. Also listed are "Thunder Road," which was on the same album, and "Born in the U.S.A."

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

The nineteen eighty-four album "Born in the U.S.A." has sold more than fifteen million copies in the United States alone. It is considered one of the greatest rock and roll albums of all time.

Bruce Springsteen is also known for his live performances. He and his E Street Band remain one of the top selling acts in the world.

VOICE TWO:

Bruce Springsteen, Dave Brubeck, Mel Brooks, Robert De Niro and Grace Bumbry will be honored at the Kennedy Center on December sixth.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Our program was written by June Simms and produced by Caty Weaver. I'm Steve Ember.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Barbara Klein. Join us again next week for THIS IS AMERICA in VOA Special English.

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Some Tips for Cold Storage of Foods

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How to build an evaporative cooler. Also, how to prepare fruits and vegetables for cold storage. Transcript of radio broadcast:

This is the VOA Special English Development Report.

" title="Indonesian women sell their harvest in a traditional floating market on the Martapura river in Lok Baintan, south Kalimantan, Indonesia " src="http://www.voanews.com/specialenglish/images/AP-food-harves-195.jpg" border="0" height="159" hspace="2" vspace="2" width="210">

Indonesian women sell their harvest in a traditional floating market

Before refrigerators were invented, the next best thing was an ice box. But another way to keep food fresh is to use an evaporative cooler. A common design is a tall box with several shelves inside to hold the food. The shelves are pieces of metal with many small holes through them. The sides of the box are covered with pieces of thick cloth.

Containers of water are placed at the top and bottom of the cooler. The ends of each piece of cloth lie in the water so the cloth stays wet.

The cooler is put outdoors, but not in the sun. Air will pass through the wet cloth. The inside of the box will stay several degrees cooler than the outside air temperature. And this may be cool enough to keep foods fresh, at least for a short time.

Some foods can make you sick if they are stored in conditions that are not cold enough to prevent the growth of harmful organisms. Freezing can keep some foods in good condition for months after the growing season. Yet foods can be damaged if they are kept too cold.

The British development group Practical Action says the best way to prepare foods for storage is at harvest time while still in the field.

Use a sharp knife and place the harvested items on a clean surface or directly into storage containers. Do not put them on the ground.

Use clean water to remove dirt, and keep the water clean. Usually it is better not to remove outer leaves from fruits and vegetables before storage. Without the leaves, food can become dry.

Fruits and vegetables must be cool from field heat before they are put into storage. But cooling them in water can spread fungus throughout the food. A better idea is to harvest foods either early or late in the day, then leave them to cool naturally.

Some fruits and vegetables must be stored at zero to four degrees Celsius. Any colder, and they might be damaged. Some foods need to be stored at four to eight degrees, and some need to be stored above eight degrees for best results.

Wet the fruits and vegetables so they do not become too dry. The best time to do this is before storage. Cover the items in plastic once they reach the right "critical temperature" for storage. Most fruits and vegetables need the relative humidity in storage to be kept between eighty-five and ninety-five percent.

Finally, leave space between the food containers and the walls of the cold storage area so air can flow. Keep the space clean. And try not to open the doors too often.

And that's the VOA Special English Development Report. I'm Steve Ember.

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Words and Their Stories: Bigwig

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Terms for people who are powerful, at least in their own minds. Transcript of radio broadcast:

Now, the VOA Special English program, WORDS AND THEIR STORIES.

(MUSIC)

Some expressions describe people who are important, or who at least think they are. One such expression is, bigwig.

In the seventeenth century, important men in Europe began to wear false hair, called wigs. As years passed, wigs began to get bigger. The size of a man's wig depended on how important he was. The more important he was -- or thought he was -- the bigger the wig he wore. Some wigs were so large they covered a man's shoulders or back.

Today, the expression bigwig is used to make fun of a person who feels important. People never tell someone he is a bigwig. They only use the expression behind his back.

Big wheel is another way to describe an important person. A big wheel may be the head of a company, a political leader, a famous movie star. They are big wheels because they are powerful. What they do affects many persons. Big wheels give the orders. Other people carry them out. As in many machines, a big wheel makes the little wheels turn.

Big wheel became a popular expression after World War Two. It probably comes from an expression used for many years by people who fix parts of cars and trucks. They said a person rolled a big wheel if he was important and had influence.

The top of something is the highest part. So it is not surprising that top is part of another expression that describes an important person. The expression is, top banana. A top banana is the leading person in a comedy show. The funniest comedian is called the top banana. The next is second banana. And so on.

Why a banana? A comedy act in earlier days often included a part where one of the comedians would hit the others over the head with a soft object. The object was shaped like a yellow fruit: the banana.

Top banana still is used mainly in show business. Yet the expression also can be used to describe the top person in any area.

A kingpin is another word for an important person. The expression comes from the game of bowling. The kingpin is the number one pin. If hit correctly with the bowling ball, the kingpin will make all the other nine pins fall. And that is the object of the game.

So, the most important person in a project or business is the kingpin. If the kingpin is removed, the business or project is likely to fail.

Kingpin is often used to describe an important criminal, or the leader of a criminal gang. A newspaper may report, for example, that police have arrested the suspected kingpin of a car-stealing operation.

(MUSIC)

This VOA Special English program, WORDS AND THEIR STORIES, was written by Marilyn Christiano. I'm Warren Scheer.

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Arthur Miller: 1915-2005: One of the Greatest American Playwrights of the 20th Century

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His plays dramatized the emotional pain that average people suffer in their daily lives. Transcript of radio broadcast:

VOICE ONE:

I’m Barbara Klein.

VOICE TWO:

And I’m Steve Ember with People in America in VOA Special English. Today we tell about Arthur Miller. Many theater critics believe he was one of the greatest American playwrights of the twentieth century.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Arthur Miller

Several plays by Arthur Miller will probably be performed for many years to come. That is because critics say Miller was able to dramatize the emotional pain that average people suffer in their daily lives.

A critic once described Miller as an activist for the common man. He demonstrates this well in one of his most famous plays, “Death of a Salesman.” The main character is a man whose dreams of success in business have died.

But Miller’s interest in the average man did not stop him from exploring major problems of society. In “The Crucible”, for example, he shows what happens when unreasonable dislike and fear cause people to accuse innocent people of horrible crimes.

Some other of his best-known plays include “All My Sons”, “A View from the Bridge” and “After the Fall.”

VOICE TWO:

Arthur Miller was born in New York City in nineteen fifteen. He died in two thousand five at his home in Roxbury, Connecticut. For sixty years, he created one dramatic work after another. Miller won many awards for his plays. Among them were a Pulitzer Prize, New York Drama Critics’ Circle prizes and Tony awards. In nineteen eighty-four, the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. honored him for his lifetime work in drama.

Miller also created stories for movies. For example, he wrote “The Misfits” for actress Marilyn Monroe. Miller’s television drama, “Playing for Time”, told of an orchestra of prisoners at the Nazi death camp, Auschwitz, during World War Two. Miller was also a political activist for human rights. But it was drama performed in the theater that Miller loved most.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Arthur Miller grew up in New York. His father, Isidore Miller, manufactured clothing and operated a store. But the father lost his money in the great economic Depression in the nineteen thirties. The family had to move from a costly apartment in Manhattan to a small house in Brooklyn.

During the Depression, Arthur worked at many jobs to earn money for college. In nineteen thirty-four, he began studying English at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Miller won an award for writing plays while at school.

VOICE TWO:

Miller returned home to New York after completing his studies. He married his college girlfriend, Mary Slattery. They had two children before later ending their marriage.

In nineteen forty-four, Arthur Miller’s first major play was performed on Broadway. It was called “The Man Who Had All the Luck.” However, the play did not bring him good luck. It had only four performances. But his second Broadway play, “All My Sons”, was a major success It won several awards in nineteen forty-seven.

“All My Sons” tells of a manufacturer who produces faulty parts for airplanes used in World War Two. One of his sons dies as the result of the father’s crime. In the play, Miller examines the relationship between the pressure to succeed and personal responsibility.

VOICE ONE:

Miller’s great play, “Death of a Salesman”, opened on Broadway in nineteen forty-nine. He was thirty-three years old when he wrote it. “Death of a Salesman” questions the pressures in American society for people to gain financial success. The play also continues his exploration of the relationships between fathers and sons.

The central character in “Death of a Salesman” is sixty-year-old Willy Loman. The action opens on the last day of Willy’s life. He has been dismissed from his job as a traveling salesman. He also recognizes that he has failed as a father. Willy thinks about killing himself.

Willy’s wife Linda understands that he is deeply and dangerously sad. But their son Biff criticizes his father’s strange actions. She answers with some of the most famous words in the American theater:

(SOUND)

LINDA: “I don’t say he’s a great man. Willy Loman never made a lot of money. His name was never in the papers. But he’s a human being, and a terrible thing is happening to him. So attention must be paid. He’s not to be allowed to fall into his grave like an old dog. Attention, attention must be finally paid to such a person. You called him crazy…”

BIFF:“I didn’t mean…”

LINDA:“No, a lot of people think he’s lost his – balance. But you don’t have to be very smart to know what his trouble is. The man is exhausted.”

VOICE TWO:

Linda knows that Willy is extremely tired. He is tired of living. He kills himself before the play is over. Linda talks to Willy at his burial place:

(SOUND)

“I search and search and I search, and I can’t understand it. Willy, I made the last payment on the house today. Today, dear. And there’ll be nobody home…”

VOICE ONE:

“Death of a Salesman” had a big influence on the American public. Many people saw their own lives in Willy Loman, the victim of broken dreams. Americans discussed the financial worries of businessmen who were getting old. But Americans were not the only ones who identified with the ideas in the play. It has been translated into about thirty languages and performed around the world.

VOICE TWO:

Arthur Miller’s criticisms of modern American life influenced another of his most important works. “The Crucible” was first produced in nineteen fifty-three. The nineteen fifties were a time of extreme fear of Communism in the United States. Sometimes this fear was unreasonable.

Miller examined this difficult period in American history by setting his play at another difficult time. “The Crucible” takes place in the seventeenth century. He based his play on trials that took place in Salem, Massachusetts. Young women in the play accuse people they dislike of being evil witches. The innocent victims are put on trial and executed. The story shows the tragic results of uncontrolled suspicion and fear. “The Crucible” has been produced more than any of Miller’s plays, both in America and around the world.

VOICE ONE:

Like the victims in “The Crucible,” the playwright himself became the object of suspicion. In nineteen fifty-six, a committee of the United States Congress ordered him to give evidence. In the nineteen forties, he had attended several meetings for writers organized by the Communist Party. The Congressional committee wanted the names of other people who attended Communist meetings.

Arthur Miller said he was not a Communist. But he would not give the committee any names. He was found guilty of disobeying Congress. Later, however, a court canceled that judgment. Miller was lucky. Some people who would not answer questions before Congress served time in prison.

VOICE TWO:

Something else lucky happened to the playwright in nineteen fifty-six. Miller married the beautiful Hollywood actress Marilyn Monroe. But their marriage was troubled. Monroe had emotional problems. They had little privacy because the media followed the famous couple everywhere.

Miller wrote the nineteen sixty-one movie “The Misfits” for his wife. The movie explored the modern Wild West through the lives of three troubled people. Arthur Miller and Marilyn Monroe ended their marriage soon after the movie was completed. A year later, Monroe died of a drug overdose.

Miller wrote another play, “After the Fall,” in nineteen sixty-four. Critics said it was the play most about his own life. They criticized him for portraying the wife of the main character as a woman who is dependent on drugs and kills herself. They said the character was based on Marilyn Monroe. But Miller denied this.

VOICE ONE:

Miller married for a third time in nineteen sixty-two. He and his wife Inge Morath, a well-known photographer, had one daughter. Morath died in two thousand two. Miller once said that even after he and Inge had been married almost forty years, people still asked him about Marilyn Monroe.

VOICE TWO:

Arthur Miller also wrote short stories and a book about his life called “Timebends: A Life.” He once wrote that when he was young he imagined that with the possible exception of a doctor saving a life, “writing a worthy play was the most important thing a human being could do.” Theater owners on Broadway agreed. On the day after he died, the lights of Broadway theaters darkened for a minute in honor of Arthur Miller.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

This program was written by Jerilyn Watson. It was produced by Lawan Davis. I’m Barbara Klein.

VOICE TWO:

And I’m Steve Ember. Sarah Long and Rich Kleinfeldt were the characters from “Death of a Salesman.” Join us again for next week for another PEOPLE IN AMERICA in VOA Special English.

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Children's Story: 'Pecos Bill'

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A tall tale about a larger than life cowboy. Transcript of radio broadcast:

Now, the Special English Program AMERICAN STORIES.

(MUSIC)

Today we tell a traditional American story called a "tall tale." A tall tale is a story about a person who is larger than life. The descriptions in the story are exaggerated – much greater than in real life. Long ago, the people who settled in undeveloped areas in America first told tall tales. After a hard day's work, people gathered to tell each other funny stories.

Pecos Bill was a larger than life hero of the American West. No one knows who first told stories about Pecos Bill. Cowboys may have invented the stories. Others say Edward O'Reilly invented the character in stories he wrote for The Century Magazine in the early nineteen hundreds. The stories were collected in a book called "The Saga of Pecos Bill" published in nineteen twenty-three.

Another writer, James Cloyd Bowman, wrote an award-winning children's book called "Pecos Bill: The Greatest Cowboy of All Time." The book won the Newbery Honor in nineteen thirty-eight.

Pecos Bill was not a historical person. But he does represent the spirit of early settlers in the American West. His unusual childhood and extraordinary actions tell about people who believed there were no limits to what they could do. Now, here is Barbara Klein with our story.

(MUSIC)

STORYTELLER:

Pecos Bill had one of the strangest childhoods a boy ever had. It all started after his father decided that there was no longer enough room in east Texas for his family.

"Pack up, Ma!" he cried. "Neighbors movin' in fifty miles away! It's getting' too crowded!"

So they loaded up a wagon with all their things. Now some say they had fifteen children while others say eighteen. However many there were, the children were louder than thunder. And as they set off across the wild country of west Texas, their mother and father could hardly hear a thing.

Now, as they came to the Pecos River, the wagon hit a big rock. The force threw little Bill out of the wagon and he landed on the sandy ground. Mother did not know Bill was gone until she gathered the children for the midday meal. Mother set off with some of the children to look for Bill, but they could find no sign of him.

Well, some people say Bill was just a baby when his family lost him. Others say he was four years old. But all agree that a group of animals called coyotes found Bill and raised him. Bill did all the things those animals did, like chase lizards and howl at the moon. He became as good a coyote as any.

(SOUND)

Now, Bill spent seventeen years living like a coyote until one day a cowboy rode by on his horse. Some say the cowboy was one of Bill's brothers. Whoever he was, he took one look at Bill and asked, "What are you?"

Bill was not used to human language. At first, he could not say anything. The cowboy repeated his question. This time, Bill said, "varmint."

That is a word used for any kind of wild animal.

"No you aren't," said the cowboy.

"Yes, I am," said Bill. "I have fleas."

"Lots of people have fleas," said the cowboy. "You don't have a tail."

"Yes, I do," said Bill.

"Show it to me then," the cowboy said.

Bill looked at his backside and realized that he did not have a tail like the other coyotes. "Well, what am I then?" asked Bill.

"You're a cowboy! So start acting like one!" the cowboy cried out. Well that was all Bill needed to hear. He said goodbye to his coyote friends and left to join the world of humans.

(MUSIC)

Now, Pecos Bill was a good cowboy. Still, he hungered for adventure. One day he heard about a rough group of men. There is some debate over what the group was called. But one storyteller calls it the "Hell's Gate Gang."

So Bill set out across the rough country to find this gang of men. Well, Bill's horse soon was injured so Bill had to carry it for a hundred miles. Then Bill met a rattlesnake fifty feet long. The snake made a hissing noise and was not about to let Bill pass. But after a tense minute, Bill beat the snake until it surrendered. He felt sorry for the varmint, though, and wrapped it around his arm.

After Bill walked another hundred miles, he came across an angry mountain lion. There was a huge battle, but Bill took control of the big cat and put his saddle on it. He rode that mountain lion all the way to the camp of the Hell's Gate Gang.

Now, when Bill saw the gang he shouted out, "Who's the boss around here?"

A huge cowboy, nine feet tall, took one look at Bill and said in a shaky voice, "I was the boss. But you are the boss from here on in."

With his gang, Pecos Bill was able to create the biggest ranch in the Southwest. Bill and his men had so many cattle that they needed all of New Mexico to hold them. Arizona was the pasture where the cattle ate grass.

Pecos Bill invented the art of being a cowboy. He invented the skill of throwing a special rope called a lasso over a cow's head to catch wandering cattle.

Some say he used a rattlesnake for a lasso. Others say he made a lasso so big that it circled the whole Earth.

Bill invented the method of using a hot branding iron to permanently put the mark of a ranch on a cow's skin. That helped stop people from stealing cattle. Some say he invented cowboy songs to help calm the cattle and make the cowboy's life easier. But he is also said to have invented tarantulas and scorpions as jokes. Cowboys have had trouble with those poisonous creatures ever since.

Now, Pecos Bill could ride anything that ever was. So, as some tell the story, there came a storm bigger than any other. It all happened during the worst drought the West had ever seen. It was so dry that horses and cows started to dry up and blow away in the wind. So when Bill saw the windstorm, he got an idea. The huge tornado kicked across the land like a wild bronco. But Bill jumped on it without a thought.

He rode that tornado across Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, all the time squeezing the rain out of it to save the land from drought. When the storm was over, Bill fell off the tornado. He landed in California. He left a hole so deep that to this day it is known as Death Valley.

(MUSIC)

Now, Bill had a horse named Widow Maker. He got that name because any man who rode that horse would be thrown off and killed and his wife would become a widow. No one could ride that horse but Bill.

And Widow Maker, in the end, caused the biggest problem for Pecos Bill. You see, one day Bill saw a woman. Not just any woman, but a wild, red- haired woman, riding a giant catfish down the Rio Grande River.

Her name was Slue-foot Sue. And Bill fell in love with her at first sight. Well, Bill would not rest until he had asked for her hand in marriage. And Slue-foot Sue accepted.

On their wedding day, Pecos Bill dressed in his best buckskin suit. And Sue wore a beautiful white dress with a huge steel-spring bustle in the back. It was the kind of big dress that many women wore in those days — the bigger the better.

Now, after the marriage ceremony Slue-foot Sue got a really bad idea. She decided that she wanted to ride Widow Maker. Bill begged her not to try. But she had her mind made up.

Well, the second she jumped on the horse's back he began to kick and buck like nothing anyone had ever seen. He sent Sue flying so high that she sailed clear over the new moon.

She fell back to Earth, but the steel-spring bustle just bounced her back up as high as before.

Now, there are many different stories about what happened next. One story says Bill saw that Sue was in trouble. She would keep bouncing forever if nothing was done. So he took his rope out -- though some say it was a huge rattlesnake -- and lassoed Sue to catch her and bring her down to Earth. Only, she just bounced him back up with her.

Somehow the two came to rest on the moon. And that's where they stayed. Some people say they raised a family up there. Their children were as loud and wild as Bill and Sue were in their younger days. People say the sound of thunder that sometimes carries over the dry land around the Pecos River is nothing more than Pecos Bill's family laughing up a storm.

(SOUND)

(MUSIC: "(There'll Never Be Another) Pecos Bill")

ANNOUNCER:

This tall tale of Pecos Bill was adapted for Special English and produced by Mario Ritter. Your storyteller was Barbara Klein. I'm Steve Ember.

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Corruption Digs Deepest in Countries in Conflict

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A report says Afghanistan and Somalia are seen as the world's most corrupt nations, while New Zealand and Denmark are seen as the least. Transcript of radio broadcast:

This is IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English.

Transparency International is out with its two thousand nine report on corruption around the world. The nongovernmental organization has released its Corruption Perceptions Index each year since nineteen ninety-eight.

This year the country seen as least corrupt is New Zealand. New Zealand shared first place last year with Denmark and Sweden. This year Denmark is ranked second, and Sweden shares third place with Singapore.

At the bottom of the list, ranked last for the third year, is Somalia.

An Afghan police officer searches voters during August's disputed presidential election. Afghanistan is seen as the second most corrupt country.

The order of the list is based on how corrupt a country's government is considered by a number of international organizations. These include the World Bank, the World Economic Forum and the Asian and African development banks.

Transparency International, based in Berlin, works to fight corruption and increase public awareness. Its yearly report has grown to a list of one hundred eighty countries.

The group says unstable countries damaged by war and ongoing conflict continue to be those most affected by corruption. Those countries include Afghanistan and Iraq, two nations that receive billions of dollars in international aid.

Iraq moved up two places this year and is now ranked fourth from the bottom, along with Sudan. But Afghanistan fell three places to just above Somalia, meaning Afghanistan is seen as the second most corrupt country.

Transparency International says people have to pay bribes to receive basic services. A lack of government enforcement against corruption is blamed for helping the Taliban gain supporters.

The United States has approved close to forty billion dollars in aid for Afghanistan over the past eight years of war. President Obama is preparing to announce his new war plan on Tuesday. The plan is expected to include thousands of additional American troops.

Afghan President Hamid Karzai began a second term last week after an election in which widespread cheating was found. He is under increased international pressure to fight corruption.

Last week his government announced new efforts to investigate top officials. A group of current and former cabinet ministers are reportedly under investigation.

In this year's corruption report, the United States dropped one place, to nineteenth from eighteenth last year. Yet the score actually improved by two-tenths of a point. Transparency International says there are many concerns about supervision of the American financial industry.

Many of the countries at the bottom of the list are in sub-Saharan Africa. Patrick Berg is a program coordinator for Transparency International.

PATRICK BERG : "Where you find poverty, corruption usually hits people the hardest. In some of the more affluent countries, corruption may be a major problem. But it does not keep people from getting health care or clean water to their houses."

But he says some countries -- including Botswana, Mauritius and Cape Verde -- have worked hard to improve their governance. As a result, they have improved their standing on the list.

And that's IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English, written by Brianna Blake. I'm Steve Ember.

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Junior Achievement Marks 90 Years of Business Education

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Volunteers help millions of young people around the world understand economics. Transcript of radio broadcast:

This is the VOA Special English Economics Report.

This year, Junior Achievement marks its ninetieth anniversary of educating young people about business and economics. The nonprofit organization is the largest of its kind. Jack Kosakowky is executive vice president.

JACK KOSAKOWSKY: "We are the oldest business and economic education organization in the world. We're now serving nine-point-two million young people around the globe in one hundred twenty-three different countries."

Programs begin in elementary school and continue through middle and high school. The education is based on the ideas of market-based economics and entrepreneurship.

Shakara Walker shows a product her group of students is marketing at JA offices in Atlanta, Georgia

Junior Achievement began in nineteen nineteen in Springfield, Massachusetts. Two business leaders, Horace Moses and Theodore Vail, joined with Senator Murray Crane of Massachusetts to start the group.

For more than fifty years, Junior Achievement programs operated through clubs that met after school. But in nineteen seventy-five, JA also began to teach business skills during the school day.

Volunteers from the community teach about businesses, how they are organized, and how products are made and sold. The volunteers also teach about the American and world economies and about industry and trade.

The Junior Achievement Company Program teaches young people how entrepreneurship works. They learn about business by operating their own companies.

Students develop a product and sell shares in their company. They use the money to buy the materials they need to make their product, which they then sell. Finally, they return the profits to the people who bought shares in the company.

Chellsey Cruz joined a student-operated company two years ago. The Higher Grounds Cafe in West Hills, California, sells high quality coffee.

She says her experience has given her valuable training that will help her for a lifetime.

CHELLSEY CRUZ: "It taught me to be dedicated, and that if you want to be successful, you have to put in a lot of time and effort. You really have to work at it."

Junior Achievement says three hundred eighty-five thousand volunteers support its programs around the world. In the United States alone, there are nearly twenty-three thousand places that hold Junior Achievement events.

Junior Achievement Incorporated and Junior Achievement International combined their operations in two thousand four. They formed Junior Achievement Worldwide. Its headquarters are in Colorado Springs, Colorado.

And that's the VOA Special English Economics Report, written by Mario Ritter with additional reporting by Faiza Elmasry. Transcripts, MP3s and podcasts of our programs can be found at voaspecialenglish.com. And you can follow us on Twitter at VOA Special English. I'm Steve Ember.

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'Sesame Street' Turns 40 Years Old

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Versions of the popular children’s show are broadcast all over the world. Transcript of radio broadcast:

HOST:

Welcome to AMERICAN MOSAIC in VOA Special English.

(MUSIC)

I'm Doug Johnson.

Today, we take a virtual walk down a famous street found in almost every land on the planet… the children's television show "Sesame Street" turns forty years old.

(MUSIC)

HOST:

More than forty years ago, a group of television educators, child development experts and artists gathered to develop a revolutionary television program. Their goal was to make a television show that would teach young children about subjects like reading and math in a way that was entertaining and fun to watch. The show was also aimed at providing children from low-income families with additional preparation for school.

(MUSIC)

"Sesame Street" was first broadcast on November tenth, nineteen sixty-nine. It was produced by a non-profit group called The Children's Television Workshop, today called The Sesame Workshop. Money for developing the program came from private foundations, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and the United States government.

The show combines animation, music, large puppets and human actors to create a series of funny and creative lessons. Some of the most famous characters on the show include Big Bird, Cookie Monster, Oscar the Grouch, and Bert and Ernie. Puppet maker Jim Henson created these loveable and funny characters.

Research is an important part of what made "Sesame Street" special. The show's creators studied the children they were targeting very carefully to understand how to best keep them entertained -- and learning.

When the show first aired, some of its creators were not sure it would last one season. But forty years later, "Sesame Street" is the longest running children's television program in the United States.

(MUSIC)

Michelle Obama on "Sesame Street"

As part of its forty year anniversary, "Sesame Street" had an extra special guest on its show. First Lady Michelle Obama showed a group of children and Big Bird how to plant seeds. She explained that the seeds would grow into vegetables, which are a healthy and good to eat.

MICHELLE OBAMA: "Hi Everyone!We are here digging up soil, because we are about to plant a garden."

ELMO: "Yeah! So we can grow our very own food.

MICHELLE OBAMA: "Right. We're planting vegetables like these right here."

Michelle Obama also had a message to the many parents who watch the show with their children. She said parents can help their children do things to have healthy lives, like getting enough exercise.

ELMO: "Yay Exercise!"

MICHELLE OBAMA: "If you want your child to have healthy habits, practice healthy habits too because you're your child's best role model."

There have been many other famous guests on the show throughout the years. Some recent ones include singer Norah Jones, actress Sarah Jessica Parker and reporter Anderson Cooper.

(MUSIC)

Today, versions of "Sesame Street" are broadcast in more than one hundred twenty-five countries. And "Sesame Street" has worked hard to deal with important issues. In two thousand two, a puppet named Kami appeared on the South African version of "Sesame Street" which is called "Takalani Sesame."

Kami

Kami is known as the first HIV positive puppet. The aim of this puppet is to teach about the spread of AIDS in the country. This is not a subject that many media programs have tried to explain to very small children. In South Africa, over five million people have the virus, including hundreds of thousands of children. So, the Kami puppet was created to help change social beliefs about AIDS and inform people about the virus.

In Egypt, "Sesame Street" is called "Alam Simsim." The program has a female puppet called Khokha. She loves learning and is always asking questions.

She was created to be a role model for Egyptian girls. She expresses the importance of girls going to school and working hard to learn.

More recently, "Sesame Street" launched a version of the show in Northern Ireland called "Sesame Tree." The show has two characters, Potto and Hilda. It takes place in a large hollow tree. The show aims to teach children about acceptance and respect.

This month, visitors to Union Station in Washington, D.C. could learn more about the different versions of "Sesame Street" around the world at a special exhibit. The picture exhibit helps explain the cultural differences behind "Sesame Street"s many productions.

The words of one of "Sesame Street"s creators are written on one of the images. They explain the goals of the show. Joan Ganz Cooney says that "Sesame Street" producers do not pretend that a television show can solve the problems of the world. But she says they believe it would be a terrible mistake not to use these influential tools to contribute to the answers.

We asked one person at the exhibit what he remembers most about "Sesame Street."

MORI DIANE: "It helped teach me how to count and read. And I also loved how they integrated the human characters with the Muppet characters. It kind of helped me live in a fantasy world as a child."

Another person we spoke to had a different experience.

MISHKA MUKHERJI: "I didn't really think about it as an educational program, I just really fell in love with the characters. My parents always tell me that I loved Big Bird."

(MUSIC)

No program about "Sesame Street" would be complete without presenting some of its most famous songs. Here is Mario Ritter with more.

(MUSIC)

Johnny Cash and Oscar the Grouch

MARIO RITTER:

That was "I Love Trash" sung by the ever unhappy green creature, Oscar the Grouch. Sometimes "Sesame Street" characters sing by themselves. Other times, famous performers sing with them. For example, here is Johnny Cash and Oscar the Grouch singing "Nasty Dan."

(MUSIC)

Many of the songs have an educational message. Here the group "Hootie and the Blowfish" sings with Elmo. They tell children about the importance of holding an adult's hand to cross the street.

(MUSIC)

The hip-hop group the Fugees has also performed on "Sesame Street." Here is "Just Happy to Be Me."

(MUSIC)

We leave you with another favorite by a character who appeared on the first episode of "Sesame Street." Here is Kermit the Frog singing "Bein' Green."

(MUSIC)

HOST:

I'm Doug Johnson. Our program was written and produced by Dana Demange. For transcripts, MP3s and podcasts of our programs, go to voaspecialenglish.com. You can also comment on our programs.

Do you have a question about people, places or things in America? Send it to mosaic@voanews.com and we may answer it on this show.

Join us again next week for AMERICAN MOSAIC, VOA's radio magazine in Special English.

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Number of Foreign Students in US Hits New High

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A new report shows that India and China remained the top senders of students last year. In all, seven of the ten top countries sent more, just as the recession was worsening. Transcript of radio broadcast:

This is the VOA Special English Education Report.

A new report says the number of foreign students in the United States reached a record high in two thousand eight.

More than six hundred seventy thousand international students attended an American college or university last year. That was eight percent higher than the year before, the largest percentage increase since nineteen eighty.

The "Open Doors" report is published by the Institute of International Education, with support from the State Department.

It says the number of international students last year was almost fifteen percent higher than the last record setting year, two thousand two. In all, seven of the ten top countries sent more students last year, just as the economic downturn was worsening.

Foreign students at Dickinson State University in North Dakota

For the eighth year, India remained the leader in sending students to the United States. More than one hundred thousand students from India attended American schools last year. That was nine percent more than the year before.

China again sent the second largest number, more than ninety-eight thousand, an increase of twenty-one percent. The biggest increases were in Chinese undergraduate students.

South Korea was third. The number of South Korean students increased nine percent to seventy-five thousand.

Canada was the only non-Asian country in the top five. It rose two percent to fourth place. Almost thirty thousand Canadian students enrolled for the school year that began last autumn.

Japan fell to fifth place. The number of Japanese students in the United States decreased for the fourth year, to just over twenty-nine thousand.

Taiwan also sent fewer students, and the number from Mexico was nearly unchanged.

The University of Southern California in Los Angeles once again had the highest number of foreign students. The "Open Doors" report says nearly seven thousand five hundred attended U.S.C. last year.

New York University and Columbia University, both in New York City, were second and third. The other schools in the top five were the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana.

Business and management was again the most popular area of study for international students. The next most popular subjects are engineering, math and computer science.

And that's the VOA Special English Education Report, written by June Simms. You can find our Foreign Student Series with advice on studying in the United States at voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Steve Ember.

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American History Series: The Battle of Cold Harbor

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The final Union campaign of the Civil War began on May 3, 1864. General Ulysses Grant had kept the details as secret as possible. Transcript of radio broadcast:

Welcome to THE MAKING OF A NATION -- American history in VOA Special English.

On July fourth, eighteen sixty-three, a huge Confederate army surrendered at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Union forces had surrounded the city for forty-seven days. Food was gone. The situation was hopeless. The Confederate commander gave up.

The terms of surrender were simple. The Confederate soldiers promised not to fight anymore. In return for this promise, they were released on parole and sent home to their families.

Never had Union forces won such a victory. Thirty thousand Confederate soldiers were now out of the war. Sixty thousand guns and one hundred seventy cannon were now in Union hands. The Mississippi River was now under Union control.

This week in our series, Larry West and Maurice Joyce continue our story of the American Civil War.

VOICE ONE:

General Ulysses Grant

The victory at Vicksburg went to General Ulysses Grant. He was named commander of all Union armies in the west. Then he was sent to Chattanooga, Tennessee.

The Union army there had just been defeated in a battle along a little river called the Chickamauga. Now the Union soldiers were resting and re-organizing in Chattanooga. The Confederate line stretched halfway around the city.

The Confederates had artillery on Lookout Mountain. They controlled every road into the city except a rough one through the mountains. They had blocked the Tennessee River above and below the city. And they had cut the railroad. The Confederate general said he would let hunger force the Union Army to surrender.

VOICE TWO:

Grant arrived in Chattanooga late in October. The city was full of hungry Union soldiers. They had been without supplies for almost a month.

Grant wasted no time. He quickly sent troops to fight the Confederate force blocking the Tennessee River. He sent others to fight the Confederates blocking the road to the nearest Union supply center. Within one week, supply wagons were rolling into Chattanooga. Within a few weeks, the defeated Union army was ready to fight again.

VOICE ONE:

Fighting on Lookout Mountain in Tennessee

General Grant sent his men against the middle and ends of the Confederate line at the same time.

There were few Confederate soldiers at Lookout Mountain. That end of the line fell easily. The center of the line was along a low hill called Missionary Ridge. It held for a while. Then Union soldiers -- acting without orders -- forced their way to the top of the hill. The Confederate line broke. Southern soldiers threw down their guns and ran for their lives.

The Confederate army withdrew south into the state of Georgia. Tennessee was completely in Union hands. The way was now open for the armies of the North to march into the heart of the Confederacy.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

It was clear that the South could not win the war. Too many Confederate soldiers had fallen in battle. None were left to take their place. Supplies were very low. There was not enough food to eat, no shoes to wear, and little left to fight with.

No one held any hope of getting supplies from outside the Confederacy. The South was circled by Union troops and warships. All seemed lost.

Yet Confederate soldiers refused to stop fighting. They would not surrender. The war would not end until the Confederate armies were defeated by military force.

VOICE ONE:

There was no question that the North had the military strength. Supplies were no problem. Factories were producing more than ever before. Manpower was no problem. Men continued to join the Union army. Fewer than before, but still enough to make it a powerful force.

The problem with the Union army was its generals. Some were too careful. Some were unwilling to fight. Some did not know how to fight.

The only general who seemed able to win victories was Ulysses Grant. That is why President Abraham Lincoln named Grant commander of all Union armies. Lincoln depended on him to end the Civil War.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

Grant went east in March eighteen sixty-four, five months after the battle at Chattanooga. He decided to make his headquarters in the field with the Army of the Potomac. He said he would not command from an office in Washington. But he went to the city to explain his plans to President Lincoln.

Grant noted that, in the past, the separate Union armies had moved and fought independently. He said they were like a poorly trained team of horses. No two of them ever pulled at the same time in the same direction.

Under his command, Grant said, the Union armies would pull together. They would hit the Confederates with so much strength in so many places that the rebels could not stop them.

Grant said all the armies would attack at the same time.

VOICE ONE:

Grant spent the month of April preparing for the big campaign. The main target, once again, was the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia.

The Army of the Potomac had one hundred twenty thousand men. It would move against Richmond from the north. General Ben Butler had fifty thousand men. He would move against Richmond from the east. General Franz Sigel would bring thousands more through the Shenandoah Valley to the northwest.

These forces were three times the size of Robert E. Lee's army near Richmond.

In the west, William Sherman had three armies with more than one hundred thousand men. His opponent, Joe Johnston, had just sixty thousand.

VOICE TWO:

General Grant kept details of the campaign as secret as possible. Reporters asked President Lincoln when Grant would move.

The president answered, "Ask General Grant."

"General Grant will not tell us," said the reporters. Said Lincoln, "He will not tell me, either."

The final Union campaign of the Civil War began on May third, eighteen sixty-four.

After two days of marching, the Army of the Potomac reached the wilderness. It was a thickly wooded area west of Fredericksburg, Virginia. That was where the Union army had lost a battle to the Confederates one year before. That was where the two armies would fight again.

VOICE ONE:

The battle quickly became a blind struggle. The woods were thick. The smoke was heavy. The soldiers could not see each other until they were very close. Shells set the trees on fire. The wounded could not escape the flames. Their screams filled the air.

After two days, General Grant decided that the wilderness was not the place to fight Robert E. Lee. He wanted to get around the end of Lee's army. He wanted to fight in the open, where he could use his artillery. So he began to march his men toward a place called Spotsylvania Court House.

VOICE TWO:

General Grant at his headquarters in Cold Harbor

Lee moved his men as fast as Grant. When the Union army got to Spotsylvania, the Confederates were waiting behind walls of earth and stone.

For several more days, the two armies fought. At times, they were so close they had no time to load and fire their guns. So they used their guns to hit each other.

The Confederate line bent. But it never broke. Once again, Lee had stopped the Union army.

Grant refused to accept defeat. He said he would fight to the finish, if it took all summer. Once again, he ordered his men to march around the end of Lee's line. Lee quickly pulled his men back to a place called Cold Harbor, not far from Richmond. There they waited.

VOICE ONE:

The Battle of Cold Harbor

As he had done in the wilderness and at Spotsylvania, Grant ordered his men to attack hard. It was a slaughter. In less than an hour, seven thousand Union soldiers fell dead or wounded.

Grant finally stopped the attack. The Union soldiers returned to their lines. They left behind hundreds of wounded men.

For four days, the wounded lay on the battlefield crying for help, for water. Men who tried to rescue them were shot down. Finally, Grant and Lee agreed on a ceasefire to take care of the wounded and bury the dead. It was too late for most of the wounded. They had died.

VOICE TWO:

The battle at Cold Harbor ended one month of fighting for the Army of the Potomac. The campaign had brought it almost to the edge of Richmond, the Confederate capital. But Grant had paid a terrible price: more than fifty thousand dead and wounded.

Confederate losses were much lighter: about twenty thousand.

General Grant was beginning to learn an important lesson of the war. The methods of defense had improved much more than the methods of attack.

(MUSIC)

ANNOUNCER:

Our program was written by Frank Beardsley. The narrators were Larry West and Maurice Joyce. You can find transcripts, MP3s and podcasts of our programs, along with historical images, at voaspecialenglish.com. And you can follow us on Twitter at VOA Learning English. Join us again next week for THE MAKING OF A NATION -- an American history series in VOA Special English.

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Global Hip-Hop Music with a Message

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Hip-hop artists sing about important social issues for young people. Transcript of radio broadcast:

VOICE ONE:

I'm Doug Johnson.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Faith Lapidus with EXPLORATIONS in VOA Special English. Today we tell about more hip-hop music artists who are spreading their messages around the world.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Hip-hop music is popular around the world. Hip-hop artists created their own Declaration of Peace that is recognized by the United Nations. Socially conscious hip-hop artists spread messages of peace, security, unity, forgiveness and happiness. Often, their songs teach young people about human rights and fighting for their freedoms so they can have a better future.

VOICE TWO:

DAM

DAM is known as the first Palestinian group to sing hip-hop. Members of the group are Tamer Nafar, his younger brother Suhell and Mahmoud Jreri. They lived in the poor area of Lod, just outside Tel Aviv. It is a town where both Israeli Jews and Arabs live.

The group's music is influenced by the Israeli and Palestinian conflict as well as social issues that affect people's freedoms. In an interview with Time Magazine, Tamer Nafar said that the conflict is their life and their window; whatever they see, they write about. They also sing about issues such as terrorism, violence linked to illegal drugs and women's rights. The group sings in Arabic, English and Hebrew.

DAM hopes to teach young people about their history and rights. They tell children not to be influenced by other people, but to learn on their own what is right and what is wrong. Children sing with them on the song Ng'Ayer Bukra, which means Change Tomorrow. The children sing that they want education and the ability to change tomorrow.

(MUSIC)

VOICE ONE:

Hadag Nahash

The Israeli group Hadag Nahash also sings about the Palestinian and Israeli conflict in some of their songs. Other songs deal with issues like racism, women's rights, Israeli economics, class divisions and politics. They want young people to question the issues that affect them and the future of Israeli society. Their political songs have caused public debates in Israeli newspapers, radio and television stations, and even Israel's parliament.

In the thirteen years the group has been together, Hadag Nahash has produced five CDs and has performed around the world. Many people have become interested in the band because of their song called "The Sticker Song."

The song includes words from stickers that are placed on cars in Israel. These bumper stickers are usually about political issues.

(MUSIC)

VOICE TWO:

Socially conscious hip-hop has become a popular form of music around the world. It is possible that every country has at least one or two socially conscious hip-hop singers or groups. However, sometimes it is not easy to learn about these artists. Their music is suppressed in countries where freedom of expression is limited. These artists fear that they will get in trouble with the government if they sing about political issues. Some musicians do sing about political and social issues in suppressed societies. However, these musicians often sing in secret and their music is not widely known.

VOICE ONE:

In China, rap or hip-hop has become a popular form of music. The musicians sing in Cantonese, Mandarin or other local languages. Many artists sing about issues that affect them and their Chinese listeners.

Young Kin

Some artists sing about social issues, but they do not sing about political issues or the government. Andreas Hwang, also called Young Kin, told VOA that he is at ease with performing or singing songs that include political and social issues. He said that if his musical career in China were to end, he could continue it somewhere else.

Young Kin was born in Switzerland, but moved to China at a young age. In the past, he has said that making political statements in music could result in the end of your job as a singer, being put in jail or being forced to leave the country. Young Kin believes that the socially conscious hip-hop movement will become more widespread in China after Chinese society goes through changes.

VOICE TWO:

In Brazil, artists use hip-hop to express social inequalities and racial issues. In the largest city, Sao Paulo, one of the oldest hip-hop groups is Racionais MC's. They started their music group in nineteen eighty-eight. Their songs are about social injustices in the city, including police violence against young people.

Many of their songs are about people living in poor areas called favelas. The members, Mano Brown, Ice Blue, Edy Rock and DJ KL Jay, all lived in favelas. The singers are also activists for the work and goals of their songs. In nineteen ninety-two Racionais MC's joined forces with Brazil's Ministry of Education. They visited schools to teach people about life in the favelas, including issues related to drugs, police violence, poverty and racism. They have also used their music to earn money for health clinics, youth sports programs and schools. In two thousand nine they released their sixth album called Ta Na Chuva.

VOICE ONE:

Marcelo D2

In Rio de Janeiro, a famous hip-hop artist called Marcelo D2 also lived in a favela. However, when he turned thirteen he left the area to work. Some of his friends who remained in the favelas were killed in gun battles with criminal groups. His first productions in hip-hop were in nineteen ninety-five in a group called Planet Hemp. Three years later he left the group and produced his own album. His songs are about his life experiences. Marcelo D2 became famous when he created a new form of hip-hop by mixing it with the Brazilian music called samba.

Marcelo D2 has performed with famous American hip-hop artists such as will-i-am from the Black Eyed Peas. He has also performed with the famous Brazilian musician Sergio Mendes.

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VOICE TWO:

Wyclef Jean is one of the top socially conscious hip-hop artists in the world. Wyclef was born in Haiti. At the age of nine he moved with his family to Brooklyn, New York and later to New Jersey. He was a member of the hip-hop group called the Fugees with Lauryn Hill and Prakazrel Samuel Michel, also known as Pras.

Wyclef has since released seven of his own CDs and will have an eighth coming out in January. Wyclef's songs are a mix of social and political issues as well as entertainment. Many of his songs are about the life of refugees or immigrants in the United States. Wyclef brings attention to the injustices some immigrants experience in the United States.

VOICE ONE:

In two thousand five, Wyclef formed the Yeli Haiti Foundation.

Wyclef Jean

The foundation works on issues such as education, health, environment and community development. It also works with the World Food Organization and the Pan American Development Foundation to help Haitians, especially after the food shortage riots last year. In two thousand seven, Haitian President Rene Preval appointed Wyclef a traveling ambassador to represent the country. Recently, Wyclef travelled to Haiti with former President Bill Clinton and United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon .

This past summer, the Black Entertainment Television network, BET, honored Wyclef with its Award for Humanitarian Work. And Wyclef was named hip-hop's unofficial multicultural conscience.

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VOICE TWO:

This program was written by Kim Varzi and produced by Dana Demange. I'm Faith Lapidus.

VOICE ONE:

And I'm Doug Johnson. You can download podcasts and comment on our programs at our Web site, voaspecialenglish.com. Join us again next week for EXPLORATIONS in VOA Special English.

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Screening for Breast, Cervical Cancer: The New Advice

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Latest guidelines from experts call for fewer mammograms and, for young women, fewer Pap tests. The mammogram changes produced a political storm. Transcript of radio broadcast:

This is the VOA Special English Health Report.

Sometimes new health advice conflicts with old advice. Yet new guidelines last week for breast cancer testing in the United States created a storm of debate. The advice came from experts who are appointed by the government to develop guidelines for preventive services, like mammograms.

Congresswoman Sue Myrick of North Carolina is joined by other lawmakers as she discusses new guidelines for mammograms on November 18

The experts advised most women to get fewer mammograms. They said the risk of needless treatment outweighs the good from more tests. The new advice is to get tested every two years, instead of yearly, and to start at age fifty instead of forty.

The task force must not consider medical costs. But critics accused the Obama administration of trying to limit mammograms to save money.

The administration pointed out that the current members of the group were appointed during the last administration. And officials said the study had begun long before the latest debate on health reform.

The House of Representatives passed health care legislation earlier this month. And the Senate agreed Saturday to begin full debate on its own bill.

The secretary of health and human services said the new advice would not affect government policies. Kathleen Sebelius advised women to "keep doing what you have been doing."

Some say they worry that health plans might pay for fewer mammograms now. But every state except Utah requires insurance companies to pay for testing women in their forties.

There appeared to be less reaction later in the week when a different group released new guidelines for cervical cancer testing. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists said the timing was just by chance.

The new guidelines say women age twenty-one to twenty-nine only need to get a Pap test every two years instead of yearly. Girls are advised to begin testing within three years of when they first have sex, or in any case no later than twenty-one.

A Pap test looks for abnormal cervical cells that could become cancer. Doctors may remove suspicious growths. But the experts say that in most cases in young women, these growths would go away by themselves. Removing them can lead to problems such as scarring and the need for Cesarean births later.

Cervical cancer is highly curable if it is found early. Pap tests have saved countless lives. Today most of the deaths are in countries with poor health care.

And that's the VOA Special English Health Report, written by Caty Weaver. For more health news, go to voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Barbara Klein.

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How You Look in Pictures Tells a Lot About You

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Also: Why some people may have an increased risk of developing diseases like diabetes and asthma. Transcript of radio broadcast:

VOICE ONE:

This is SCIENCE IN THE NEWS in VOA Special English. I'm Bob Doughty.

VOICE TWO:

And, I'm Barbara Klein. This week, we will tell about efforts against the H1N1 virus, often called swine flu. We will give a possible explanation for why some people may have an increased risk of developing diseases like diabetes and asthma. And we will tell about a study that confirms the importance of first impressions.

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VOICE ONE:

The H1N1 influenza virus continues to spread. Currently, the virus is most active in the northern half of the world. But experts say it has become the leading flu virus in all countries.

No one really knows how many people have gotten sick. H1N1 was first reported in Mexico in April. Countries are no longer required to test and report individual cases. But close to five hundred million confirmed cases were reported to the World Health Organization as of November first.

The W.H.O. offices for the Americas and the Western Pacific reported two out of three of those cases. The agency says more than six thousand people worldwide have died because of H-one N-one.

The Saudi Arabian Health Minister gives his 8-year-old daughter the swine flu vaccine in Riyadh

VOICE TWO:

W.H.O. special adviser Keiji Fukuda reported earlier this month that the virus has acted in some ways like seasonal flu. Most people recover without any need for interventions like antiviral drugs.

But in other ways, H1N1 is different. It remained at unusually high levels in several countries during their summer months. And, unlike seasonal flu, younger people have suffered many of the serious cases and deaths from the virus.

In the United States, cases of suspected influenza are at higher numbers than usual this early in the flu season. Experts at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention say hospital treatment for likely H1N1 is most common among children up to four years old.

VOICE ONE:

Health officials around the world are concerned about vaccine production. Wealthy countries have promised to donate ten percent of their H1N1 vaccine to poor countries. But there is a worldwide shortage.

The traditional way to make flu vaccine is to grow the virus in chicken eggs. Anthony Fauci at the National Institutes of Health says the shortage is an issue of biology. He says the companies that make vaccines cannot really do much when they have a virus that does not grow well.

VOICE TWO:

Officials in Saudi Arabia are preparing for the Hajj, which starts this week. The event normally brings about three million Muslims from one hundred sixty countries to the city of Mecca.

Disease experts are concerned that H1N1 could spread easily among the Muslim pilgrims. Saudi officials have a campaign to give vaccines to health workers. They are also urging countries to vaccinate pilgrims making the trip. And they are advising against travel by children, pregnant women and other groups at highest risk.

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VOICE ONE:

Swedish researchers have found that babies born by Caesarean section experience changes to the genes in their white blood cells. A published report says the genetic changes could be linked to stress levels during this method of giving birth.

The report says the changes could explain why persons born by Caesarean section are more likely to get diseases like diabetes and asthma later in life. Those diseases affect the immune system – the body's natural resistance to disease.

VOICE TWO:

Researchers at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden tested blood from the umbilical cords of thirty-seven newborn babies. The researchers tested the blood again three to five days later. They examined DNA-methylation in the white blood cells. DNA methylation shows chemical changes in a person's deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.

The study found that sixteen babies born by C-section had higher DNA-methylation rates immediately after they were born than the other babies. Three to five days later, the rates were about the same. The reason for this is unclear.

VOICE ONE:

Earlier animal studies showed that emotional or mental tension around birth affects methylation of the genes. Experts say babies are unprepared for birth when a doctor performs a C-section. As a result, those babies can have higher stress levels than those born without the help of the operation.

In other births, emotional or mental tension increases slowly as the woman's labor progresses. This helps the baby to start breathing and get settled in the new environment outside the mother.

Professor Mikael Norman of the Karolinska Institute helped to write the report. He says C-section births have been linked to an increased risk of allergic reactions, diabetes and leukemia later in life. The study appeared earlier this year in the publication Acta Paediatrica.

VOICE TWO:

The researchers say the discovery could be important to a debate about Cesarean-section deliveries. Births by C-section are increasing worldwide. It is currently the most common surgical operation among women of reproductive age.

America's Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says caesarean births rose to nearly thirty-two percent of all births in two thousand seven. This was the eleventh time in eleven years that rates have increased. But some experts believe that many of the C-sections are not medically necessary.

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VOICE ONE:

Many people have learned as children that first impressions are important. Parents and other adults often say that people judge you by the way you look.

Now, American and British researchers have confirmed that judgments based only on how someone looks are important. They found that appearance tells a lot about your personality -- the traits or qualities that make you the person that you are.

The researchers included Laura Naumann of Sonoma State University in California, and Simine Vazire of Washington University in Saint Louis, Missouri. They were joined by Sam Gosling of the University of Texas at Austin and Peter J. Rentfrow of Britain's Cambridge University. The results of their study will be published next month in the Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

VOICE TWO:

We will call the subjects in the study, the judges. That is because they judged the personality of people they had never met. The judges examined pictures of one hundred twenty-three people. The people in the photographs had been told how to stand. They looked into the cameras with a neutral facial expression. The same people also were photographed the way they themselves wanted to stand. Those who wanted to smile could smile.

Then the judges attempted to decide what the people were like. The researchers compared the judges' opinions with the way the people who were photographed rated themselves. Three people who knew those in the photographs well also provided information about their personality and behavior.

VOICE ONE:

The judges looked for ten traits in the people in the pictures. The qualities included extroversion, or interest in other people and one's environment. Another important trait was self-esteem: Does the person feel good about himself or herself?

The judges also looked for signs of likeability, openness and agreeability. Other traits considered in the study were loneliness, and religious and political beliefs. Other considerations were emotional control and conscientiousness -- the quality of being guided by a sense of right and wrong.

VOICE TWO:

The researchers said the judges could identify some personality traits even when people were pictured in controlled positions. They could recognize traits like extroversion and self-esteem. But it was hard for the judges to decide about most other traits under the controlled conditions.

When the people smiled and stood looking natural and energetic, however, judging their personalities was easy. Then the judges' choices were correct for nine of the ten personality traits.

Researcher Laura Nauman noted that we live in a time of social media, and personal photographs are everywhere. She says it is important to understand how appearance communicates personality. If you want people to see you as warm and friendly, she says, just smile.

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VOICE ONE:

This SCIENCE IN THE NEWS was written by June Simms, Jerilyn Watson and Caty Weaver. Our producer was Brianna Blake. I'm Bob Doughty.

VOICE TWO:

And I'm Barbara Klein. Join us again next week for more news about science in Special English on the Voice of America.

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